CardioPractice family24 styles
Cardio
Cardio is an exercise practice studied across physical health, metabolic measures, breathing capacity, body weight, cognition, and mental health. Its research base is extensive and includes meta-analyses, so the overall picture is well developed rather than resting on isolated reports.
Cardio is considered here in relation to its possible effects on health.
204 studies on cardio in general · +576 more studies of single styles, each counted once →
Styles of cardio
24 styles in our catalog. 7 written up from studies.
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
Good for: Fatigue Reduction · Insulin Sensitivity Improvement · Balance Improvement
Effort: High–very high · Session: 4–60 min · Studies: 287 own
- Swimming
Good for: Balance Improvement · Mood Improvement · Physical Strength Increase
Effort: Low–high · Session: 30–90 min · Studies: 129 own
- Cycling
Good for: Oxygen Utilization Improvement · Physical Strength Increase · Cognitive Function Improvement
Effort: Low–high · Session: 15–60 min · Studies: 89 own
- Brisk Walking
Good for: Physical Endurance Increase · Blood Pressure Support · Physical Function
Effort: Low–high · Session: 26–90 min · Studies: 68 own
- Jump Rope Training
Good for: Weight Management Support · Physical Endurance Increase · Physical Strength Increase
Effort: Low–very high · Session: 3–45 min · Studies: 65 own
- Indoor Rowing
Good for: Oxygen Utilization Improvement · Physical Strength Increase · Physical Endurance Increase
Effort: Moderate–very high · Session: 20–90 min · Studies: 35 own
- Tabata Training
Good for: Blood Pressure Support · Weight Management Support · Physical Endurance Increase
Effort: Moderate–very high · Session: 4–60 min · Studies: 30 own
Not written up yet (17): Aqua Aerobics · Bootcamp Training · Boxing / Kickboxing Fitness · Circuit Training · CrossFit · Elliptical Training · Fartlek Training · Hill Sprints · Incline Treadmill Walking · Indoor Cycling / Spinning · Nordic Walking · Norwegian 4x4 Intervals · Running / Jogging · Sprint Interval Training · Stair Climbing · Trail Running · Zone 2 Cardio
What each style was studied for
Each column counts only trials of that style. Ratings sit side by side. We never combine them.
- Physical Endurance Increase
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 31 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 128 trials
- Swimming
- Medium · 8 trials
- Cycling
- Medium · 9 trials
- Brisk Walking
- Medium · 19 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- Medium · 13 trials
- Tabata Training
- Medium · 11 trials
- Indoor Rowing
- Low · 3 trials
Trials, each once: 221
- Weight Management Support
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 4 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 43 trials
- Swimming
- 2 trials
- Cycling
- Medium · 4 trials
- Brisk Walking
- Medium · 10 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- Medium · 7 trials
- Tabata Training
- Medium · 7 trials
- Indoor Rowing
- Not rated, mixed results (2 trials)
Trials, each once: 79
- Physical Strength Increase
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 4 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Low · 28 trials
- Swimming
- Medium · 12 trials
- Cycling
- Medium · 6 trials
- Brisk Walking
- Medium · 7 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- Medium · 8 trials
- Tabata Training
- Medium · 7 trials
- Indoor Rowing
- 2 trials
Trials, each once: 73
- Cardiovascular Health Support
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 14 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 37 trials
- Swimming
- Medium · 4 trials
- Cycling
- 1 trial
- Brisk Walking
- Medium · 3 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- 1 trial
- Tabata Training
- 1 trial
- Indoor Rowing
- Low · 3 trials
Trials, each once: 64
- Blood Pressure Support
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 11 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Low · 30 trials
- Swimming
- Medium · 4 trials
- Cycling
- Medium · 3 trials
- Brisk Walking
- Medium · 6 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- 1 trial
- Tabata Training
- High · 3 trials
- Indoor Rowing
- Not rated, mixed results (3 trials)
Trials, each once: 61
- Balance Improvement
- Cardio in general
- High · 3 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 7 trials
- Swimming
- Medium · 14 trials
- Cycling
- 2 trials
- Brisk Walking
- Medium · 4 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- 2 trials
- Tabata Training
- 1 trial
- Indoor Rowing
- 1 trial
Trials, each once: 34
- Inflammation Reduction
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 7 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Low · 10 trials
- Swimming
- 2 trials
- Cycling
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Brisk Walking
- 2 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Tabata Training
- Not rated, mixed results (3 trials)
- Indoor Rowing
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
Trials, each once: 27
- Body Composition Improvement
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 11 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 40 trials
- Swimming
- Medium · 6 trials
- Cycling
- High · 3 trials
- Brisk Walking
- Low · 7 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- Low · 4 trials
- Tabata Training
- 2 trials
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 71
- Physical Function
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 5 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 24 trials
- Swimming
- Medium · 4 trials
- Cycling
- Medium · 8 trials
- Brisk Walking
- 2 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- 2 trials
- Tabata Training
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 46
- Cholesterol Level Reduction
- Cardio in general
- High · 10 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Low · 24 trials
- Swimming
- 2 trials
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- Medium · 5 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- 2 trials
- Tabata Training
- 1 trial
- Indoor Rowing
- Not rated, mixed results (2 trials)
Trials, each once: 46
- Blood Glucose Level Support
- Cardio in general
- Low · 8 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Low · 22 trials
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- 2 trials
- Brisk Walking
- 2 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- 1 trial
- Tabata Training
- Not rated, mixed results (3 trials)
- Indoor Rowing
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
Trials, each once: 38
- Insulin Sensitivity Improvement
- Cardio in general
- Low · 9 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 22 trials
- Swimming
- 1 trial
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- 2 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- 1 trial
- Tabata Training
- 2 trials
- Indoor Rowing
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
Trials, each once: 37
- Mood Improvement
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 10 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Low · 8 trials
- Swimming
- Medium · 8 trials
- Cycling
- 2 trials
- Brisk Walking
- 1 trial
- Jump Rope Training
- Low · 4 trials
- Tabata Training
- 1 trial
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 34
- Anxiety Reduction
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 14 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Low · 8 trials
- Swimming
- Medium · 3 trials
- Cycling
- 1 trial
- Brisk Walking
- Not rated, mixed results (4 trials)
- Jump Rope Training
- 2 trials
- Tabata Training
- 2 trials
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 34
- Triglyceride Level Reduction
- Cardio in general
- High · 9 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Low · 16 trials
- Swimming
- 2 trials
- Cycling
- 1 trial
- Brisk Walking
- 2 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- 2 trials
- Tabata Training
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 33
- Overweight
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 4 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 16 trials
- Swimming
- 1 trial
- Cycling
- 1 trial
- Brisk Walking
- Low · 3 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- 2 trials
- Tabata Training
- 2 trials
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 28
- Resting Heart Rate Improvement
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 3 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Low · 9 trials
- Swimming
- 2 trials
- Cycling
- 2 trials
- Brisk Walking
- Low · 3 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- Medium · 3 trials
- Tabata Training
- 2 trials
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 24
- Flexibility Improvement
- Cardio in general
- 2 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- Medium · 3 trials
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- 2 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- Medium · 4 trials
- Tabata Training
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Indoor Rowing
- 2 trials
Trials, each once: 15
- Obesity
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 11 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 47 trials
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- 2 trials
- Brisk Walking
- Low · 6 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- Medium · 8 trials
- Tabata Training
- Medium · 8 trials
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 80
- Cognitive Function Improvement
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 26 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 17 trials
- Swimming
- Medium · 5 trials
- Cycling
- Medium · 12 trials
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- Low · 5 trials
- Tabata Training
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 65
- HDL Cholesterol Increase
- Cardio in general
- Low · 7 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Low · 19 trials
- Swimming
- 2 trials
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- Low · 3 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Tabata Training
- 1 trial
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 33
- Oxygen Utilization Improvement
- Cardio in general
- High · 6 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 4 trials
- Swimming
- Medium · 3 trials
- Cycling
- High · 6 trials
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- 2 trials
- Indoor Rowing
- Medium · 3 trials
Trials, each once: 24
- Muscle Mass Increase
- Cardio in general
- 2 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Low · 10 trials
- Swimming
- Medium · 3 trials
- Cycling
- 1 trial
- Brisk Walking
- 2 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- Medium · 4 trials
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 21
- Respiratory Health Support
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 7 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Low · 6 trials
- Swimming
- 1 trial
- Cycling
- Medium · 3 trials
- Brisk Walking
- Medium · 3 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- 1 trial
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 21
- Stress Resilience Improvement
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 3 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Not rated, mixed results (7 trials)
- Swimming
- 2 trials
- Cycling
- 1 trial
- Brisk Walking
- 1 trial
- Jump Rope Training
- Medium · 3 trials
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 17
- Analgesic Effect
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 4 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 4 trials
- Swimming
- 2 trials
- Cycling
- Not rated, mixed results (2 trials)
- Brisk Walking
- Not rated, mixed results (2 trials)
- Jump Rope Training
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 15
- Fatigue Reduction
- Cardio in general
- 2 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 8 trials
- Swimming
- 1 trial
- Cycling
- 2 trials
- Brisk Walking
- 2 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- 1 trial
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 15
- Improve Heart Rate Variability (HRV)
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 3 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 4 trials
- Swimming
- 1 trial
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- 2 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Indoor Rowing
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
Trials, each once: 12
- Antidepressant Effect
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 25 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 9 trials
- Swimming
- Medium · 4 trials
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- Not rated, mixed results (3 trials)
- Jump Rope Training
- 2 trials
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 43
- Diabetes Type 2
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 9 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 23 trials
- Swimming
- 2 trials
- Cycling
- 2 trials
- Brisk Walking
- 2 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 36
- Memory Improvement
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 6 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 4 trials
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- Not rated, mixed results (2 trials)
- Brisk Walking
- 1 trial
- Jump Rope Training
- 2 trials
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 15
- Osteoarthritis
- Cardio in general
- Very high · 3 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- High · 5 trials
- Cycling
- Medium · 3 trials
- Brisk Walking
- 1 trial
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- 1 trial
Trials, each once: 13
- Anxiety Disorder (General)
- Cardio in general
- Low · 5 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- 2 trials
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- 1 trial
- Jump Rope Training
- 1 trial
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 10
- Bone Health Improvement
- Cardio in general
- 2 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- 2 trials
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- 1 trial
- Jump Rope Training
- Not rated, mixed results (3 trials)
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 9
- Motivation Increase
- Cardio in general
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Not rated (1 trial)
- Swimming
- 1 trial
- Cycling
- Not rated, mixed results (3 trials)
- Brisk Walking
- 1 trial
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 7
- Concentration Improvement
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- 2 trials
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- 1 trial
- Jump Rope Training
- 1 trial
- Tabata Training
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 6
- Sleep Quality Improvement
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 14 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 4 trials
- Swimming
- 1 trial
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- Low · 3 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 22
- Stroke
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Not rated (15 trials)
- Swimming
- Not rated (2 trials)
- Cycling
- Not rated (1 trial)
- Brisk Walking
- Not rated (1 trial)
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 19
- Parkinson's Disease
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 8 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 4 trials
- Swimming
- 2 trials
- Cycling
- Medium · 4 trials
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 18
- COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease)
- Cardio in general
- High · 3 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- High · 5 trials
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- Low · 3 trials
- Brisk Walking
- 2 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 13
- Blood Flow Improvement
- Cardio in general
- 2 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 5 trials
- Swimming
- 2 trials
- Cycling
- 1 trial
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 10
- Social Function Improvement
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 2 trials
- Swimming
- Medium · 4 trials
- Cycling
- 1 trial
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- 2 trials
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 9
- Coordination Improvement
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Low · 3 trials
- Swimming
- 1 trial
- Cycling
- 2 trials
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- 2 trials
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 8
- Fat Burning Increase
- Cardio in general
- Not rated, mixed results (2 trials)
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- 2 trials
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Tabata Training
- Medium · 3 trials
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 8
- ADHD
- Cardio in general
- 2 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- Medium · 3 trials
- Cycling
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- 2 trials
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 8
- Depression
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 3 trials
- Swimming
- 1 trial
- Cycling
- 2 trials
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- 1 trial
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 7
- Cellular Energy Support
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 3 trials
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- 1 trial
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- 1 trial
- Indoor Rowing
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
Trials, each once: 6
- Osteoporosis
- Cardio in general
- 2 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- 2 trials
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 6
- Lung Capacity Improvement
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- 1 trial
- Cycling
- 1 trial
- Brisk Walking
- 2 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 5
- Reaction Speed Increase
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 2 trials
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- 2 trials
- Tabata Training
- 1 trial
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 5
- Blood Oxygen Saturation Improvement
- Cardio in general
- 1 trial
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- 1 trial
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 4
- Immune System Support
- Cardio in general
- 1 trial
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- 1 trial
- Brisk Walking
- 1 trial
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 4
- Coronary Artery Disease
- Cardio in general
- High · 4 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 12 trials
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- 1 trial
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 17
- Working Memory Improvement
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 6 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 6 trials
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- 1 trial
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 13
- Cancer (General)
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 3 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- High · 8 trials
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- 1 trial
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 12
- Metabolic Syndrome
- Cardio in general
- 2 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 8 trials
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- 1 trial
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 11
- Heart Disease (General)
- Cardio in general
- 2 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 6 trials
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- 1 trial
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 9
- Menopause
- Cardio in general
- High · 4 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- 1 trial
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- 2 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 7
- Emotional Regulation Improvement
- Cardio in general
- 2 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- Medium · 3 trials
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- 1 trial
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 6
- Grip Strength Improvement
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Low · 3 trials
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- 1 trial
- Brisk Walking
- Not rated, mixed results (2 trials)
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 6
- Joint Health Improvement
- Cardio in general
- 2 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- 2 trials
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- 1 trial
Trials, each once: 5
- Neuroplasticity Improvement
- Cardio in general
- 2 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- 2 trials
- Cycling
- 1 trial
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 5
- Mild Cognitive Impairment
- Cardio in general
- Low · 3 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- 1 trial
- Cycling
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 5
- Pregnancy
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Low · 3 trials
- Swimming
- 1 trial
- Cycling
- 1 trial
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 5
- Neuroprotective Effect
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Not rated, mixed results (2 trials)
- Swimming
- 1 trial
- Cycling
- 1 trial
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 4
- Antioxidant Protection Enhancement
- Cardio in general
- 2 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- 1 trial
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 4
- Dyslipidemia
- Cardio in general
- 1 trial
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 2 trials
- Swimming
- 1 trial
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 4
- Fibromyalgia
- Cardio in general
- 2 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- 1 trial
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- 1 trial
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 4
- Physical Energy Increase
- Cardio in general
- 1 trial
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 3
- Muscle Preservation
- Cardio in general
- 1 trial
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- 1 trial
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 3
- Ankylosing Spondylitis
- Cardio in general
- 1 trial
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- 1 trial
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 3
- Post-Viral Syndrome
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Cycling
- 1 trial
- Brisk Walking
- 1 trial
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 3
- Chronic Pain Reduction
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 6 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- Low · 10 trials
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 16
- Breast Cancer
- Cardio in general
- High · 4 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 5 trials
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 9
- Peripheral Artery Disease
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- 1 trial
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- High · 7 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 8
- Liver Health Support
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 6 trials
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- 1 trial
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 7
- Hypertension (High Blood Pressure)
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 3 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- Medium · 4 trials
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 7
- PCOS (Polycystic Ovary Syndrome)
- Cardio in general
- High · 3 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 4 trials
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 7
- Back Pain
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- Medium · 5 trials
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 6
- Alzheimer's Disease
- Cardio in general
- Medium · 4 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 5
- Sarcopenia (Muscle Loss)
- Cardio in general
- 2 trials
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 3 trials
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 5
- Asthma
- Cardio in general
- 1 trial
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 3 trials
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 4
- Elderly (65+)
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Not rated (2 trials)
- Swimming
- 2 trials
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 4
- Multiple Sclerosis
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 3 trials
- Swimming
- 1 trial
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 4
- Prediabetes
- Cardio in general
- 1 trial
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 3 trials
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 4
- Alertness Increase
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- 2 trials
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 3
- Autism Spectrum Disorder
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- 2 trials
- Cycling
- 1 trial
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 3
- Kidney Disease (General)
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- 2 trials
- Brisk Walking
- 1 trial
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 3
- Rheumatoid Arthritis
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 2 trials
- Swimming
- 1 trial
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 3
- SHBG Level Reduction
- Cardio in general
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 2
- Appetite Suppression (Desired)
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 2
- Posture Improvement
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
Trials, each once: 2
- Sleep Onset Improvement
- Cardio in general
- 1 trial
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- 1 trial
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 2
- Task Switching Improvement
- Cardio in general
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 2
- Testosterone Level Increase
- Cardio in general
- 1 trial
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 2
- Longevity and Anti-Aging Support
- Cardio in general
- 1 trial
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- 1 trial
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 2
- Mitochondrial Function Support
- Cardio in general
- 1 trial
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- 1 trial
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 2
- Chronic Pain
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- 1 trial
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 2
- Dementia
- Cardio in general
- 1 trial
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- 1 trial
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 2
- HIV/AIDS
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- 1 trial
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 2
- Hypercholesterolemia (High Cholesterol)
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- 1 trial
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 2
- IBD (Inflammatory Bowel Disease)
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- 1 trial
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- 1 trial
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 2
- Insomnia
- Cardio in general
- 1 trial
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- 1 trial
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 2
- Intellectual Disability
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- 1 trial
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- 1 trial
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 2
- Leukemia
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- 1 trial
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 2
- Lung Cancer
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- 1 trial
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 2
- Perimenopause
- Cardio in general
- 1 trial
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- 1 trial
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 2
- Schizophrenia
- Cardio in general
- Not rated (1 trial)
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- 1 trial
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 2
- Fatty Liver Prevention
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- 1 trial
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 1
- Heart Failure (CHF)
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 8 trials
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 8
- Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD)
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Medium · 4 trials
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 4
- Stroke Recovery
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- High · 3 trials
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 3
- Hemoglobin Level Support
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Not rated, mixed results (2 trials)
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 2
- Diabetes Type 1
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 2 trials
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 2
- Pediatric
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- 2 trials
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 2
- Prolactin Level Reduction
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 1
- Appetite Increase (Desired)
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 1
- Digestion Improvement
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- 1 trial
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 1
- Metabolic Flexibility Improvement
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 1
- Proprioception Improvement
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 1
- Sexual Function and Libido Improvement
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 1
- Urinary Flow Improvement
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 1
- Increased Growth Hormone Release
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 1
- Nitric Oxide Production Increase
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 1
- DHT Level Reduction
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 1
- Kidney Health Support
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- 1 trial
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 1
- Lymphatic System Support
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 1
- Arthritis (General)
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- 1 trial
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 1
- Atherosclerosis
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 1
- Atrial Fibrillation
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 1
- Colon Cancer
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- 1 trial
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 1
- COVID-19
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 1
- Insulin Resistance
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 1
- Kidney Failure (ESRD)
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- 1 trial
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 1
- Myopathy
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 1
- Peripheral Neuropathy
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 1
- Prostate Cancer
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- 1 trial
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 1
- PTSD (Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder)
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- 1 trial
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 1
- Scoliosis
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
Trials, each once: 1
- Underweight
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- —
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 1
- Vitamin D Deficiency
- Cardio in general
- —
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
- —
- Swimming
- Not rated, mixed results (1 trial)
- Cycling
- —
- Brisk Walking
- —
- Jump Rope Training
- —
- Tabata Training
- —
- Indoor Rowing
- —
Trials, each once: 1
Cells with 1 or 2 trials show the count, not a rating.
23 studies in our set compare two cardio styles.
For 21 more outcomes there are only studies of cardio in general: Female Hormonal Balance Support (2 trials) · Addiction (General) (2 trials) · Drug Addiction (2 trials) · Chronic Kidney Disease (2 trials) · Major Depressive Disorder (2 trials) · Sleep Apnea (2 trials) · and 15 more
Cardio in general
What studies of cardio as a whole found. A single style may differ.
Overview
Cardio is an exercise practice studied across physical health, metabolic measures, breathing capacity, body weight, cognition, and mental health. Its research base is extensive and includes meta-analyses, so the overall picture is well developed rather than resting on isolated reports. However, support varies by outcome: several physical and metabolic effects have stronger support, while some proposed uses for specific health conditions remain less certain. The findings therefore do not imply one uniform effect of cardio across all people or purposes.
Well researched: 204 studies. Last checked Oct 12, 2026.
- 50
- human evidence
- 42
- eligible
- 24
- unclassified
- 5
- animal / null result
Best-evidenced uses
- OsteoarthritisVery high · RCT
- Oxygen Utilization ImprovementHigh · Meta-analysis
- Balance ImprovementHigh · Meta-analysis
- 204
- Studies
Evidence checked Oct 12, 2026 · newest study 2026
- A
- 47
- B
- 106
- C
- 41
- D
- 10
412 community reports across 5 platforms
Coverage
- Effects
- 70
- Helps with
- 51
- Side effects
- 19
- Interactions
- 10
How to read the evidence
Evidence tier — overall strength of the evidence for the whole compound
- StrongWell established — backed by strong, consistent human research.
- ModerateSome genuine support, but mostly from small or lower-quality studies. Promising, not proven.
- PreliminaryEarly-stage evidence — a promising hypothesis, not an established effect yet.
- LimitedVery limited evidence — treat this as a hypothesis, not proof.
- InsufficientNot enough good evidence to draw conclusions yet.
Certainty — how sure we can be that the effect is real
- Very highVery sure — strong, consistent evidence
- HighFairly sure — consistent evidence from good studies
- MediumModerately sure — new studies could change this
- LowNot sure — little or mixed evidence
- Very lowVery unsure — almost no usable evidence
Source — where the data comes from
- Meta-analysisPooled analysis of many trials — the strongest evidence
- RCTRandomized controlled trial — a strong human study design
- ClinicalA human clinical study
- Reference knowledgeFrom general health-science or pharmacology references, not a study of this exact claim
- Animal researchStudied in animals, not humans
- Community reportsAggregated user reports — anecdotal signal, not evidence
- TheoreticalMechanism-based reasoning, not yet tested
Study grade — quality of each underlying study (A best, D weakest)
- AHigh-quality — strong, consistent human trials
- BGood — solid evidence with some limitations
- CModerate — limited, small, or mixed-quality studies
- DWeak — preliminary, indirect, or animal-only
Confidence — how strongly the sources back a finding
A 0–100 score from study quality and agreement
Most supplement evidence is graded C–D. Read it as preliminary signal, not proof.
These are research findings, not promises. A practice does not replace medical treatment.
What does research say?
What studies found for each claimed effect, best evidence first.
70 claims:2 good evidence18 some evidence15 mixed21 not enough evidence9 not tested in people5 no benefit found
Oxygen Utilization ImprovementGood evidence it helpsSize of effect: Not known
Good human studies found a benefit, and they mostly agree. This is about what studies measured, not a cure.
All 6 studies with a clear result found a benefit. Strongest study: a pooled analysis of several trials. Trials that found it ran as little as 6 weeks, typically 30.
Open the Oxygen Utilization Improvement pageBalance ImprovementGood evidence it helpsSize of effect: Large
Good human studies found a benefit, and they mostly agree. This is about what studies measured, not a cure.
All 3 studies with a clear result found a benefit. Strongest study: a pooled analysis of several trials. Trials that found it ran as little as 4 weeks, typically 8.
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found higher balance scores on the Berg Balance Scale; higher scores indicate better balance. Another pooled analysis found greater improvement among people with Parkinson's disease whose aerobic exercise dose had high compliance with ACSM recommendations.
Open the Balance Improvement pagePhysical Endurance IncreaseSome evidence it helpsSize of effect: Medium
Some human studies found a benefit. More research could change this.
31 of 32 studies found a benefit; 1 found none. Strongest study: a pooled analysis of several trials. Trials that found it ran as little as 4 weeks, typically 12.
A pooled analysis of randomized trials found cardiorespiratory fitness favored exercise over non-exercise control by 3.4 mL·kg -1 ·min -1. Another pooled analysis reported greater improvement in six-minute walk distance with exercise, including aerobic exercise plus respiratory muscle training and resistance training compared with no exercise.
Open the Physical Endurance Increase pageWorking Memory ImprovementSome evidence it helpsSize of effect: Medium
Some human studies found a benefit. More research could change this.
All 7 studies with a clear result found a benefit. Strongest study: a pooled analysis of several trials. A trial found it after a single session. Trials that found it ran as little as 12 weeks, typically 16.
Open the Working Memory Improvement pageInflammation ReductionSome evidence it helpsSize of effect: Small
Some human studies found a benefit. More research could change this.
All 8 studies with a clear result found a benefit. Strongest study: a pooled analysis of several trials. Trials that found it ran as little as 8 weeks, typically 18.
Pooled analyses found reduced high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), including a pooled result whose designs were not recorded and a separate pooled analysis of randomized trials. These results came from studied groups that included people with chronic kidney disease and overweight.
Open the Inflammation Reduction pageChronic Pain ReductionSome evidence it helpsSize of effect: Not known
Some human studies found a benefit. More research could change this.
All 6 studies with a clear result found a benefit. Strongest study: a pooled analysis of several trials. Trials that found it ran as little as 9 weeks, typically 11.
Open the Chronic Pain Reduction pageBone Health ImprovementSome evidence it helpsSize of effect: Small
Some human studies found a benefit. More research could change this.
All 2 studies with a clear result found a benefit. Strongest study: a pooled analysis of several trials. Trials that found it ran as little as 24 weeks, typically 40.
Open the Bone Health Improvement pageFatigue ReductionSome evidence it helpsSize of effect: Medium
Some human studies found a benefit. More research could change this.
All 2 studies with a clear result found a benefit. Strongest study: a pooled analysis of several trials.
Open the Fatigue Reduction page
What to expect
A cognitive finding was observed after a single session, while other changes were measured at the end of programmes lasting weeks. For cholesterol and triglyceride outcomes, the shortest trials reporting benefits ran 2 weeks and typical trials 18 weeks; for oxygen utilization, these were 6 and 30 weeks, and for balance, 4 and 8 weeks. Antidepressant findings were measured after trials running 8 weeks at the earliest and 13 weeks typically. Some reported harms occurred during programmes lasting weeks.
Also studied in people with 51 health conditions
How strong the evidence is in each group. This is research, not a treatment recommendation.
OsteoarthritisGood evidence it helpsSize of effect: Not known
Good human studies found a benefit, and they mostly agree. This is about what studies measured, not a cure.
All 3 studies with a clear result found a benefit.
Pooled analyses reported improvements in pain, function, gait performance, and quality of life, with no clear safety differences observed. A separate pooled analysis of 5 RCTs found improvements in VO2max, 6MWD, pain, and disability, but described the effects as small and not clinically significant.
Open the Osteoarthritis pageBreast CancerGood evidence it helpsSize of effect: Medium
Good human studies found a benefit, and they mostly agree. This is about what studies measured, not a cure.
All 4 studies with a clear result found a benefit.
Pooled analyses of randomized trials in women with breast cancer found improvements in fatigue and physical function. Another pooled analysis of 26 RCTs involving 1803 female breast cancer patients reported changes in IGF-axis and metabolic markers; its reported optimal dose was 560-1080 METs·min/week.
Open the Breast Cancer pageCoronary Artery DiseaseGood evidence it helpsSize of effect: Not known
Good human studies found a benefit, and they mostly agree. This is about what studies measured, not a cure.
All 4 studies with a clear result found a benefit.
A pooled analysis of randomized trials found improved cardiorespiratory fitness in people with coronary heart disease compared with non-exercise control. A separate pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded reported that some exercise modalities changed triglycerides or total cholesterol in people with SCAD receiving stable statin therapy.
Open the Coronary Artery Disease pageMenopauseGood evidence it helpsSize of effect: Not known
Good human studies found a benefit, and they mostly agree. This is about what studies measured, not a cure.
All 4 studies with a clear result found a benefit.
Pooled analyses of randomized trials in postmenopausal women reported improvements in blood pressure, lipids, and anxiety, but not depression. A separate network analysis of 23 RCTs found reduced depressive symptoms in peri- and post-menopausal women.
Open the Menopause pageCOPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease)Good evidence it helpsSize of effect: Not known
Good human studies found a benefit, and they mostly agree. This is about what studies measured, not a cure.
All 3 studies with a clear result found a benefit.
Pooled analyses of randomized trials in people with stable COPD reported improvements in quality of life and dyspnea. A separate pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found improvements in dyspnoea, lower limb fatigue, heart rate, and TUG performance, with high adherence (75-100%) and minimal mild adverse events.
Open the COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease) pagePCOS (Polycystic Ovary Syndrome)Good evidence it helpsSize of effect: Not known
Good human studies found a benefit, and they mostly agree. This is about what studies measured, not a cure.
All 3 studies with a clear result found a benefit.
A pooled analysis of randomized trials found significant reductions in fasting insulin, HOMA-IR and LDL cholesterol in women with PCOS; the authors recommend structured HIIT for these outcomes. Another pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded reported reductions in BMI and 17α-OHP with aerobic exercise, and improved metabolic outcomes with combined or mind-body exercise, though certainty was low to very low.
Open the PCOS (Polycystic Ovary Syndrome) pageObesitySome evidence it helpsSize of effect: Not known
Some human studies found a benefit. More research could change this.
11 of 14 studies found a benefit; 3 found none.
A dose-response analysis of 116 RCTs in 6880 adults with overweight or obesity found reductions in body weight, waist circumference, and body fat; ≥150 min/week at moderate intensity or greater was associated with clinically important reductions in waist circumference and body fat. Findings in a separate subgroup of children with BMI > 25 kg/m² did not show significant improvements in any executive-function subcomponent.
Open the Obesity pageDiabetes Type 2Some evidence it helpsSize of effect: Medium
Some human studies found a benefit. More research could change this.
9 of 11 studies found a benefit; 2 found none.
Pooled analyses of randomized trials in adults with diabesity reported improvements in glycemic, anthropometric, and lipid outcomes compared with standard treatment. Findings differ for HbA1c: another pooled analysis of randomized trials found no significant change in this primary glycemic endpoint, although HOMA-IR improved.
Open the Diabetes Type 2 page
Before you try it
What studies and reports say about side effects and who it may not suit.
- Side effects
Possible: Muscle Ache (Myalgia) and Heart Rhythm Disturbance.
17 more with weak evidence.
- May not suit you if you have
- Recent Heart Attack (MI), Unstable Heart Disease (Unstable Angina / Decompensated Heart Failure), Aortic Aneurysm, Long QT Syndrome, Recent Stroke, Acute Febrile Illness, and 2 more
- Some trials left out people with
- Heart Disease (General), Diabetes (General), Drug Addiction, Cancer (General), and 2 more
- Reported by users
- Injury Risk Increase (6 posts), Muscle Ache (Myalgia) (6 posts), and Dizziness
General wellness information, not medical advice. Ask a doctor before you start, especially if you take medicines or have a health condition.
Safety across the styles
Which pages list each warning. A warning on one style page may not fit the other styles.
- Listed for cardio in general and every written style
- Recent Heart Attack (MI)
- Listed on some pages only
- Acute Febrile Illness (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Swimming, Cycling, Brisk Walking, Tabata Training, Indoor Rowing) · Acute Injury (Jump Rope Training, Tabata Training) · Angina (High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Brisk Walking, Tabata Training, Indoor Rowing) · Aortic Aneurysm (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Indoor Rowing) · Heart Arrhythmia (High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Brisk Walking, Jump Rope Training, Tabata Training, Indoor Rowing) · Heart Failure (CHF) (Brisk Walking, Tabata Training) · Heart Valve Disease (High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Indoor Rowing) · Hypertension (High Blood Pressure) (High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Swimming, Jump Rope Training, Tabata Training) · Long QT Syndrome (Cardio in general, Swimming) · Osteoporosis (Jump Rope Training, Indoor Rowing) · Pregnancy (Jump Rope Training, Tabata Training) · Recent Stroke (Cardio in general, Cycling) · Rhabdomyolysis (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)) · Post-Surgery Recovery (Brisk Walking, Jump Rope Training) · Unstable Heart Disease (Unstable Angina / Decompensated Heart Failure) (Cardio in general, Swimming, Cycling) · Acute Diarrhea (Swimming) · Chlorine Sensitivity (Swimming) · Contagious Skin Infection (Swimming) · Deep Vein Thrombosis (Brisk Walking) · Epilepsy (Swimming) · Bone Fracture (Brisk Walking) · Glaucoma (Indoor Rowing) · Heart Disease (General) (Jump Rope Training) · Herniated Disc (Indoor Rowing) · Orthostatic Hypotension (Cycling) · Otitis Media (Ear Infection) (Swimming) · Pheochromocytoma (High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)) · Retinal Detachment (Indoor Rowing) · Tracheostomy (Swimming)
These precautions were written by our reviewers. They are not trial results.
- Side effects listed on 2 or more pages
- Appetite Increase (Undesired) (Cardio in general, Cycling) · Blood Pressure Increase (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Cycling) · Blood Sugar Decrease (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Tabata Training) · Blood Sugar Increase (High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Cycling) · Digestive Discomfort (Cycling, Brisk Walking) · Dizziness (High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Cycling, Tabata Training, Indoor Rowing) · Mental Fatigue (High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Swimming) · Physical Fatigue (High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Cycling) · Heart Rhythm Disturbance (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Cycling, Tabata Training) · Heat Illness (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Cycling, Brisk Walking) · Inflammation Increase (Cardio in general, Swimming) · Injury Risk Increase (Swimming, Cycling, Brisk Walking, Tabata Training, Indoor Rowing) · Joint Pain (Arthralgia) (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Cycling, Brisk Walking, Jump Rope Training, Indoor Rowing) · Muscle Ache (Myalgia) (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Swimming, Cycling, Brisk Walking, Indoor Rowing) · Muscle Breakdown (Rhabdomyolysis) (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Cycling, Jump Rope Training, Tabata Training) · Muscle Cramps (Cardio in general, Tabata Training, Indoor Rowing) · Muscle Strain (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Swimming, Cycling, Brisk Walking, Jump Rope Training) · Nausea (High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Tabata Training) · Overtraining Syndrome (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Cycling, Indoor Rowing) · Pain (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Swimming, Cycling, Brisk Walking, Indoor Rowing) · Skin Rash / Irritation (Cardio in general, Swimming, Cycling) · Fainting (Syncope) (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Swimming, Cycling, Tabata Training) · Tendinopathy (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Swimming, Cycling, Jump Rope Training) · Weight Gain (High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Cycling) · Lipid Profile Worsening (Cardio in general, Brisk Walking)
Studied as a help on one page, listed as a precaution on another
- Heart Disease (General)
- Cardio in general: studied as a help (2 trials)
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT): studied as a help (Medium · 6 trials)
- Cycling: studied as a help (1 trial)
- Jump Rope Training: listed as a precaution (written by our reviewers)
- Heart Failure (CHF)
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT): studied as a help (Medium · 8 trials)
- Brisk Walking: listed as a precaution (written by our reviewers)
- Tabata Training: listed as a precaution (written by our reviewers)
- Hypertension (High Blood Pressure)
- Cardio in general: studied as a help (Medium · 3 trials)
- Brisk Walking: studied as a help (Medium · 4 trials)
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT): listed as a precaution (written by our reviewers)
- Swimming: listed as a precaution (written by our reviewers)
- Jump Rope Training: listed as a precaution (written by our reviewers)
- Tabata Training: listed as a precaution (written by our reviewers)
- Osteoporosis
- Cardio in general: studied as a help (2 trials)
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT): studied as a help (1 trial)
- Swimming: studied as a help (2 trials)
- Jump Rope Training: listed as a precaution (written by our reviewers)
- Indoor Rowing: listed as a precaution (written by our reviewers)
- Pregnancy
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT): studied as a help (Low · 3 trials)
- Swimming: studied as a help (1 trial)
- Cycling: studied as a help (1 trial)
- Jump Rope Training: listed as a precaution (written by our reviewers)
- Tabata Training: listed as a precaution (written by our reviewers)
Both sides are shown as they are listed. Talk to a clinician about your own case.
How people do it
A gentle start, then what the studies used.
- Start with
- 30 minutes, 2 times a week (Steady-State Moderate Cardio)A gentle start based on the easiest variation, not on a study.
- Build up to
- 41 minutes, 3 times a week (what the studies used)
- What the studies ran
- 135 minutes a week for 13 weeks
- Longest session studied
- 60 minutes (Pool-Based Aqua Jogging)Not a target and not a safe limit: past it there is no evidence either way.
The expert view shows every study, dose protocol and source.
Effects
70 listedStart here
Highest probability, strongest evidence
- →Oxygen Utilization ImprovementCertaintyHighSourceMeta-analysis6 cited studies
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found that aerobic exercise increased peak VO₂ by 2.14 in postoperative patients with coronary heart disease (95% CI (1.34, 2.94), p < 0.00001). A separate pooled analysis reported a large effect on relative VO₂max, though the population and number of participants for that result were not stated.
- →Balance ImprovementCertaintyHighSourceMeta-analysisLarge effect3 cited studies
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found higher balance scores on the Berg Balance Scale (SMD = 1.15; 95% CI, 0.90 to 1.41; P < 0.00001); higher scores indicate better balance. Another pooled analysis found greater improvement among people with Parkinson's disease whose aerobic exercise dose had high compliance with ACSM recommendations.
- →Cholesterol Level ReductionCertaintyHighSourceMeta-analysisSmall effectconflicting findings12 cited studies
A pooled analysis of randomized trials found that low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglycerides decreased by 3.6 mg/dL (95% CI: -6.1 to -1.1). Another pooled analysis found a greater improvement in LDL-C among postmenopausal women, while a pooled analysis of randomized trials in pregnant patients found a non-significant reduction in total cholesterol; the results therefore differ across populations and outcomes.
- →Triglyceride Level ReductionCertaintyHighSourceMeta-analysisSmall effectconflicting findings11 cited studies
A pooled analysis of randomized trials found that triglycerides decreased by 7.7 mg/dL (95% CI: -11.9 to -3.5). A separate pooled analysis found a reduction among postmenopausal women, but a pooled analysis of randomized trials in pregnant patients did not find a significant change, so results differ across populations.
Medium probability(31)
- →Physical Endurance IncreaseCertaintyMediumSourceMeta-analysisModerate effectlong-term32 cited studies · 1 other source
A pooled analysis of randomized trials found cardiorespiratory fitness favored exercise over non-exercise control by 3.4 (3.0-3.9) mL·kg -1 ·min -1. Another pooled analysis reported greater improvement in six-minute walk distance with exercise, including aerobic exercise plus respiratory muscle training and resistance training compared with no exercise.
- →Working Memory ImprovementCertaintyMediumSourceMeta-analysisModerate effect7 cited studies
Pooled analyses whose designs were not recorded found improved working-memory performance, including a reaction-time result where lower scores indicate better performance (SMD = -0.52, 95% CI [-0.82, -0.21], p < 0.05). The findings came from people with schizophrenia and other studied populations, rather than establishing the same effect for everyone.
- →Inflammation ReductionCertaintyMediumSourceMeta-analysisSmall effect8 cited studies
Pooled analyses found reduced high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), including a pooled result whose designs were not recorded (SMD = -1.18; 95% CI: -1.81, -0.55; P < 0.001) and a separate pooled analysis of randomized trials (SMD −0.32, 95% CI −0.52 to −0.12). These results came from studied groups that included people with chronic kidney disease and overweight.
- →Chronic Pain ReductionCertaintyMediumSourceMeta-analysis6 cited studies · 1 other source
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found lower pain intensity in people with Parkinson's disease (SMD = −1.728, p = 0.00, 95% CI [−2.26 to −1.31]), measured using VAS, MPQ, or MSQ. Another pooled analysis reported improvements in physical pain and other symptoms after an exercise program.
- →Physical Strength IncreaseCertaintyMediumSourceMeta-analysisSmall effect6 cited studies · 1 other source
Pooled analyses of randomized trials found improvements in muscle strength compared with controls or usual care, including an aerobic exercise result of SMD 0.45 (95% CI 0.04–0.85, p = 0.032). The findings came from studies including people with breast cancer, osteoarthritis, and Parkinson's disease.
- →Physical FunctionCertaintyMediumSourceMeta-analysisModerate effect10 cited studies · 1 other source
A pooled analysis of randomized trials found improved physical function compared with controls (SMD 0.59, 95% CI 0.15–1.03, p = 0.009), but results varied considerably between studies (I² = 88%). Another pooled analysis of randomized trials reported improved lower-limb function compared with usual care.
- →Cognitive Function ImprovementCertaintyMediumSourceMeta-analysisTrivial effectconflicting findings32 cited studies · 1 other source
Pooled analyses whose designs were not recorded found improvements in overall cognitive function assessed with the Montreal Cognitive Assessment and Mini-Mental State Examination (SMD = 0.49, 95% CI: 0.23–0.75, P < 0.001). Results were not uniform: a pooled analysis of randomized trials found no statistically significant difference in performance on the Stroop Color and Word Test, with the confidence intervals crossing the null.
- →Antidepressant EffectCertaintyMediumSourceMeta-analysisSmall effectconflicting findings33 cited studies
Pooled analyses whose designs were not recorded found reduced depressive symptoms in antenatal depression (SMD = −0.466, 95% CI: −0.775 to −0.158; P = 0.003) and in people with chronic illness and comorbid depression (Hedges' g: −0.73, 95% CI −0.99 to –0.46, p<0.001). However, a pooled analysis of randomized trials found no statistically significant effect on depression, so results differ between analyses.
- →Anxiety ReductionCertaintyMediumSourceMeta-analysisSmall effectconflicting findings18 cited studies
Pooled analyses whose designs were not recorded found fewer antenatal anxiety symptoms (SMD = −1.184, 95% CI: −2.048 to −0.319; P = 0.007), while a pooled analysis of randomized trials found a small reduction in anxiety scores (SMD -0.2 [−0.3, -0.03]). Another pooled analysis found no significant effect on anxiety, so results differ between analyses.
- →Mood ImprovementCertaintyMediumSourceMeta-analysisModerate effectconflicting findings12 cited studies · 1 other source
One pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found improved mental aspects of quality of life, based on 1 trial with 80 participants. A separate pooled analysis found better psychological status, but another analysis reported that comparisons for mental health and emotions did not reach statistical significance.
- →Sleep Quality ImprovementCertaintyMediumSourceMeta-analysisModerate effectconflicting findings19 cited studies · 1 other source
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found improved sleep quality in older adults (SMD: −0.68, 95% CI: −0.85 to −0.51, p = 0.01), and a pooled analysis of randomized trials also found improvement. Another pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found no statistically significant difference between intervention and control groups, so findings were mixed.
- →Blood Pressure SupportCertaintyMediumSourceMeta-analysisLarge effectconflicting findings14 cited studies
A pooled analysis of randomized trials found systolic blood pressure decreased by 4.5 mm Hg (95% CI: -6.5 to -2.4); another pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found a favorable effect on diastolic blood pressure (MD = −2.5, 95% CI: −3.8, −1.18). A separate pooled analysis of randomized and non-randomized human studies found no significant effects on blood pressure or glycolipid markers.
- →Body Composition ImprovementCertaintyMediumSourceMeta-analysisSmall effectconflicting findingslong-term12 cited studies · 1 other source
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded linked each 30 minutes per week of aerobic exercise with a lower waist circumference (mean difference, −0.56 cm [95% CI, −0.67 to −0.45 cm]); the reported estimates at 300 min/week were −4.21 cm for moderate intensity and −5.34 cm for moderate-to-vigorous intensity. Other pooled results found BMI reductions, but a pooled analysis of randomized and non-randomized human studies found no significant BMI difference versus placebo.
- →Weight Management SupportCertaintyMediumSourceMeta-analysisTrivial effectconflicting findings6 cited studies · 1 other source
Among postmenopausal women, a pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found a reduction in body weight (MD = −1.43, 95% CI: −1.97, −0.9); another pooled analysis of randomized trials found BMI improved compared with standard treatment (SMD -0.18 kg/m2, 95% CI -0.36 to -0.01). A separate pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found no statistically significant BMI change, so the findings are mixed.
- →Memory ImprovementCertaintyMediumSourceMeta-analysisTrivial effectconflicting findings8 cited studies
Pooled analyses whose designs were not recorded found small improvements in working-memory accuracy and memory function. In contrast, a pooled analysis of randomized trials found a statistically uncertain effect on memory, with its confidence interval crossing the null.
- →Immune System SupportCertaintyMediumSourceMeta-analysisModerate effect2 cited studies
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found a change in CD3+ counts after long-term intervention (SMD = -0.74, 95% CI (-1.12, -0.36), p < 0.01). A separate review described possible effects on immune function, inflammation, and tumor immune surveillance.
- →Bone Health ImprovementCertaintyMediumSourceRCTSmall effect2 cited studies
Pooled analyses whose designs were not recorded found improvements in a bone measure with high-intensity aerobic exercise (MD = 0.12, 95%CI (0.08, 0.16)) and an increase in alkaline phosphatase (SMD = 0.49, 95% CI: 0.21-0.77, P = 0.0006).
- →Fatigue ReductionCertaintyMediumSourceRCTModerate effect2 cited studies · 1 other source
Pooled analyses whose designs were not recorded found reduced fatigue compared with routine healthcare, including cancer-related fatigue (SMD=0.54, 95% CrI: 0.10 to 0.98). The results concern fatigue measured in people with clinical conditions.
- →Analgesic EffectCertaintyMediumSourceRCTLarge effectlong-term6 cited studies
Pooled analyses of randomized trials found lower pain intensity, including a result for aerobic exercise measured on a 0–10 cm VAS (SMD = −1.07; 95% CI: −1.57 to −0.57; p < 0.0001). That analysis reported substantial heterogeneity (I² = 86.4%), and the studied conditions included migraine and osteoarthritis.
- →Joint Health ImprovementCertaintyMediumSourceRCTlong-term2 cited studies
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found a 3.03-point improvement in disability on a standardized 0-100 scale, where 100 = no disability. A randomized controlled trial found that the high-intensity group had reductions in C-terminal telopeptide of type II collagen (−28.5%, P < .001) and cartilage oligomeric matrix protein (−22.3%, P < .001).
- →Resting Heart Rate ImprovementCertaintyMediumSourceRCTLarge effect3 cited studies · 1 other source
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found a decrease in heart rate (SMD = −1.78, 95% CI = −3.31 to −0.24, P =0.024). In a randomized controlled trial, resting heart rate decreased more steeply with EXT than with MICT.
- →Respiratory Health SupportCertaintyMediumSourceRCTTrivial effectconflicting findings8 cited studies
Pooled analyses whose designs were not recorded found improvements in forced vital capacity (FVC = 0.11 L, p < 0.01) and reported that aerobic exercise plus respiratory muscle training ranked more favorably than other treatments except aerobic exercise alone. However, a systematic review pooling randomized trials found no statistically significant difference in dyspnea scores, so respiratory outcomes were not consistent.
- →Stress Resilience ImprovementCertaintyMediumSourceRCTLarge effect5 cited studies
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found reduced stress (SMD = −1.06; 95% CI −2.09 to −0.03). A separate systematic review reported that physical activity can slightly reduce cortisol levels and improve sleep quality.
- →Neuroplasticity ImprovementCertaintyMediumSourceRCTLarge effect2 cited studies
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found an increase in CA2/3 volume in the aerobic exercise training group, but not in the functional strength training group. A separate randomized controlled trial reported a 0.62% annual increase in left POrG volume following aerobic exercise.
- →Flexibility ImprovementCertaintyMediumSourceRCTLarge effect2 cited studies
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found improved scores on the Bath Ankylosing Spondylitis Metrology Index compared with conventional treatment (SMD = −0.96, 95% CI [-1.91, −0.02]); a traditional pooled analysis also found improvement with aerobic exercise. A randomized controlled trial reported improvement in both its teaching intervention and comparison groups.
- →Blood Flow ImprovementCertaintyMediumSourceRCT5 cited studies
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found improved flow-mediated dilation (μ = 1.14, 95% credible interval [CrI] 0.42 to 1.95). A quasi-experimental study in 16 people found carotid distensibility increased from 5.8 ± 0.9 to 6.1 ± 0.2 × 10^-3/mmHg (P = 0.049, r = 0.347).
- →Antioxidant Protection EnhancementCertaintyMediumSourceRCTModerate effect4 cited studies
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found higher superoxide dismutase (SOD) in people with type 2 diabetes (SMD = 0.59, 95% CI [0.17–1.01], P = 0.006). A quasi-experimental study in participants with obesity also reported increased abundance of the antioxidant enzyme peroxiredoxin 1 after training.
- →Female Hormonal Balance SupportCertaintyMediumSourceRCTModerate effect2 cited studies
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found lower 17α-OHP with aerobic exercise compared with no exercise treatment (SMD: -0.51; 95% CrI: -0.95, -0.07). In one analysis of 20 participants, SHBG increased after 16-week of training, while testosterone, FSH, and LH did not change.
- →Cardiovascular Health SupportCertaintyMediumSourceRCTLarge effectconflicting findings17 cited studies · 1 other source
A pooled analysis of randomized trials found improved flow-mediated dilation (SMD, 0.99; 95% CI, 0.69 to 1.29), although results varied substantially between studies (I2 = 87.1%). Another pooled analysis found a greater improvement in left ventricular end-diastolic volume in males than females; a separate analysis reported no statistically significant comparisons for the measured physiological health indicators.
- →Improve Heart Rate Variability (HRV)CertaintyMediumSourceClinical3 cited studies
In a randomized controlled trial of 47 people, RMSSD increased in the EXT group but not the MICT group; however, the group-by-time interaction was not significant (p = .057). A separate randomized controlled trial reported improved SDNN values at both the 6th and 12th weeks.
- →Mitochondrial Function SupportCertaintyMediumSourceClinical2 cited studies
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found that MICT was associated with elevated mitochondrial volume density (pooled effect estimate 1.04 [95% CI: 0.68, 1.40], z=5.63, p<0.00001). Separate animal research reported higher ACADVL expression in an exercise-plus-doxorubicin group than in the other experimental groups.
Low probability(32)
- →HDL Cholesterol IncreaseCertaintyLowSourceMeta-analysisSmall effectconflicting findings10 cited studies · 1 other source
A pooled analysis of randomized trials found high-density lipoprotein cholesterol increased by 2.4 mg/dL (95% CI: 1.0 to 3.8), and another pooled analysis found a greater increase among postmenopausal women. A separate pooled analysis of randomized trials did not find a significant HDL change, so results were mixed.
- →Blood Glucose Level SupportCertaintyLowSourceMeta-analysisModerate effectconflicting findings11 cited studies · 2 other sources
Pooled analyses found improved glucose measures in postmenopausal women and lower glycated hemoglobin compared with standard treatment (SMD -0.79 %, 95% CI -1.17 to -0.41). In contrast, a pooled analysis of randomized trials found no significant change in fasting glycaemia, so findings differed across measures and analyses.
- →Insulin Sensitivity ImprovementCertaintyLowSourceMeta-analysisSmall effectconflicting findings12 cited studies · 1 other source
Pooled analyses found reductions in fasting insulin, including a pooled analysis of randomized trials (SMD -0.44 mIU/L, 95% CI -0.72 to -0.15). However, another pooled analysis of randomized trials found no statistically significant improvement in the insulin resistance index, so results differed by measure and analysis.
- →Longevity and Anti-Aging SupportCertaintyLowSourceRCTModerate effect1 cited study · 1 other source
Pooled analyses whose designs were not recorded found that chronic aerobic exercise increased s-Klotho levels (SMD 0.76; 95%CI 0.52 to 1.00; I²=8%; p<0.00001), based on 2,765 people in its s-Klotho analysis.
- →Emotional Regulation ImprovementCertaintyLowSourceRCT2 cited studies
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded reported improvement in emotional role after an exercise program. A randomized controlled trial also found improvement in hostility in its teaching intervention group compared with the control group.
- →Muscle PreservationCertaintyLowSourceRCT1 cited study
A randomized trial found lower odds of clinically defined sarcopenia with HIIT than with CON at Year 3 (OR = 0.51; p = 0.018) and Year 5 (OR = 0.47; p = 0.009). The trial included 1,567 participants.
- →Testosterone Level IncreaseCertaintyLowSourceRCTModerate effectconflicting findings2 cited studies
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found a moderate increase in testosterone concentrations in men (g = 0.565, 95% CI = 0.307 to 0.822, p < 0.001). A separate pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found no statistically significant change, so the findings disagree.
- →Migraine ReliefCertaintyLowSourceRCT1 cited study
A pooled analysis of randomized and non-randomized human studies involving 253 people concluded that aerobic exercise may reduce pain intensity and migraine frequency, but the pooled frequency estimate was not given.
- →Muscle Mass IncreaseCertaintyLowSourceRCTconflicting findings3 cited studies · 1 other source
A quasi-experimental study in 16 people found total lean mass increased from 51.3 ± 8.1 to 52.5 ± 8.2 kg (P = 0.003, r = 0.526). However, a pooled analysis of randomized trials found an imprecise lean-body-mass estimate whose confidence interval crossed the null.
- →Blood Oxygen Saturation ImprovementCertaintyLowSourceRCTconflicting findings2 cited studies
A pooled analysis of randomized trials reported a 1.56% increase in peripheral capillary oxygen saturation. A separate pooled analysis of randomized and non-randomized human studies found no significant difference versus placebo for aerobic exercise.
- →Allergy Symptom ReliefCertaintyLowSourceClinicallong-term1 cited study
By week 8, the MOA group had a better congestion outcome (MD = 1.33; 95% CI: 0.45, 2.22; p = 0.005) in an 18-participant randomized trial.
- →Physical Energy IncreaseCertaintyLowSourceClinical1 cited study · 1 other source
In an 18-participant randomized trial, RPE was lower relative to CON (MD = −2.33; 95% CI: −3.09, −1.58; p < 0.001).
- →Morning Alertness ImprovementCertaintyLowSourceClinical1 cited study
A quasi-experimental study of 51 students found that median MEQ scores rose from 41 (36–47) before exercise to 50 (45–55) afterward (p < 0.001).
- →Sleep Onset ImprovementCertaintyLowSourceClinical1 cited study
A quasi-experimental study of 51 participants found improvements after exercise in sleep onset latency, habitual sleep efficiency, sleep disturbances, and daytime dysfunction (p values were 0.0001, 0.004, 0.007, and <0.001, respectively).
- →Vagal Tone ImprovementCertaintyLowSourceClinical1 cited study · 1 other source
In a quasi-experimental study of 16 healthy people, cardiovagal baroreflex sensitivity gain during sit-stand increased from 8.39 ± 3.07 to 10.36 ± 3.57 ms/mmHg (P = 0.004, r = 0.503).
- →Fat Burning IncreaseCertaintyLowSourceClinicalconflicting findingsnot used for recommendations2 cited studies · 1 other source
A quasi-experimental study in participants with obesity found that respiratory exchange ratio at different submaximal intensities decreased after 12 weeks of training. A separate pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found an imprecise fat-mass estimate with a confidence interval crossing zero.
- →Muscle Recovery AccelerationCertaintyLowSourceReviewnot used for recommendations1 cited study · 1 other source
A review describes a well-developed aerobic system as supporting recovery between high-intensity training sessions and during competition; this finding is from a review, not human trial evidence.
- →Concentration ImprovementCertaintyLowSourceReviewnot used for recommendations1 cited study
A review describes improved sustained attention, focused attention, and attentional control after aerobic exercise interventions in people with schizophrenia, potentially reducing attention difficulties.
- →Antipsychotic Adjunct EffectCertaintyLowSourceReviewnot used for recommendations1 cited study
In schizophrenia, a review reports that aerobic exercise was associated with reductions in both positive and negative symptoms, and describes two meta-analyses in which it outperformed treatment as usual or occupational therapy.
- →Hemoglobin Level SupportCertaintyLowSourceReviewnot used for recommendations1 cited study
A 2026 review describes moderate endurance training as expanding plasma volume (~6%–16%) and, over longer training periods, increasing red-cell volume (up to 10%).
- →Autophagy SupportCertaintyLowSourceAnimal researchanimal / in-vitro onlynot used for recommendations1 cited study
In an animal study involving cardiomyopathy, p62 levels were lower in the EXE-DOX group than in the SED-DOX group (p < 0.05); the authors interpreted this as enhanced autophagic flux.
- →Lung Capacity ImprovementCertaintyLowSourceTheoreticalnot used for recommendations1 other source
Regular cardio training is described as increasing lung volumes and strengthening respiratory muscles, with resulting improvements in pulmonary function.
- →Nitric Oxide Production IncreaseCertaintyLowSourceTheoreticalnot used for recommendations1 other source
Cardio exercise is described as stimulating endothelial nitric oxide production, promoting vasodilation and improved blood flow regulation.
- →Fatty Liver PreventionCertaintyLowSourceTheoreticallong-termnot used for recommendations1 other source
Aerobic exercise is described as reducing intrahepatic fat in people with fatty liver, even without much weight loss.
- →Heat ToleranceCertaintyLowSourceTheoreticalnot used for recommendations1 other source
Repeated aerobic exercise is described as producing heat acclimatization: plasma volume expands, sweating starts earlier, and core temperature and heart rate during exertion fall.
- →Metabolic Flexibility ImprovementCertaintyLowSourceTheoreticalnot used for recommendations1 other source
Cardio exercise is described as enhancing the body's ability to switch between carbohydrate and fat oxidation, supporting metabolic flexibility and energy homeostasis.
- →Thermoregulation ImprovementCertaintyLowSourceTheoreticallong-termnot used for recommendations1 other source
Regular cardio training is described as improving sweating efficiency and heat dissipation during exertion, which can enhance heat tolerance.
- →Detoxification SupportCertaintyLowSourceTheoreticallong-termnot used for recommendations1 other source
Cardiovascular exercise is described as enhancing hepatic blood flow and phase I/II liver enzyme activity, supporting the metabolic clearance of xenobiotics.
- →Lymphatic System SupportCertaintyLowSourceTheoreticallong-termnot used for recommendations1 other source
Rhythmic muscle contractions during aerobic exercise are described as promoting lymph flow and immune cell trafficking.
- →Motivation IncreaseCertaintyLowSourceTheoreticalnot used for recommendations1 cited study · 1 other source
This is a proposed link rather than a finding demonstrated in human studies.
- →Rumination ReductionCertaintyLowSourceTheoreticalnot used for recommendations1 cited study · 1 other source
A randomized trial involving 80 people with osteoarthritis found no significant between-group difference in PCS rumination at 6 months (mean difference −2.0; 95% CI −5.1, 1.1; p=0.218), so the studies did not support this effect.
Very low probability(3)
- →Task Switching ImprovementCertaintyVery lowSourceRCTTrivial effectnot used for recommendations1 cited study
Pooled analyses whose designs were not recorded did not support improved task switching: the result was a non-significant trend (SMD = −0.18, 95% CI: −0.47 to 0.11, P = 0.23) among 4,349 people in its task-switching analysis.
- →Skin Health ImprovementCertaintyVery lowSourceRCTnot used for recommendations1 cited study
Pooled randomized trials did not support a skin-health benefit: neither lifestyle strategy showed credible evidence of superiority over UC for improving PASI, despite a more favorable point estimate for D+AE versus UC (MD, −2.48; 95% CrI, −6.26 to 1.46). PASI is a severity score, with a decrease indicating improvement.
- →SHBG Level ReductionCertaintyVery lowSourceRCTTrivial effectnot used for recommendations1 cited study
Pooled analyses whose designs were not recorded did not support a reduction in SHBG in men: the analysis found no significant change (g = -0.027, 95% CI= -0.307 to 0.252, p = 0.848, I² = 0.0%) among 44 people in its SHBG analysis.
What to expect
A cognitive finding was observed after a single session, while other changes were measured at the end of programmes lasting weeks. For cholesterol and triglyceride outcomes, the shortest trials reporting benefits ran 2 weeks and typical trials 18 weeks; for oxygen utilization, these were 6 and 30 weeks, and for balance, 4 and 8 weeks. Antidepressant findings were measured after trials running 8 weeks at the earliest and 13 weeks typically. Some reported harms occurred during programmes lasting weeks.
Conditions it's used for
Complaints and diagnoses people take it for51 listedHighest probability, strongest evidence
- →OsteoarthritisCertaintyVery highSourceRCT3 cited studies
Pooled analyses reported improvements in pain, function, gait performance, and quality of life, with no clear safety differences observed. A separate pooled analysis of 5 RCTs found improvements in VO2max, 6MWD, pain, and disability, but described the effects as small and not clinically significant.
- →Breast CancerCertaintyHighSourceMeta-analysisModerate effect4 cited studies
Pooled analyses of randomized trials in women with breast cancer found improvements in fatigue and physical function. Another pooled analysis of 26 RCTs involving 1803 female breast cancer patients reported changes in IGF-axis and metabolic markers; its reported optimal dose was 560-1080 METs·min/week.
- →Coronary Artery DiseaseCertaintyHighSourceMeta-analysis4 cited studies
A pooled analysis of randomized trials found improved cardiorespiratory fitness in people with coronary heart disease compared with non-exercise control. A separate pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded reported that some exercise modalities changed triglycerides or total cholesterol in people with SCAD receiving stable statin therapy.
- →MenopauseCertaintyHighSourceMeta-analysis4 cited studies
Pooled analyses of randomized trials in postmenopausal women reported improvements in blood pressure, lipids, and anxiety, but not depression. A separate network analysis of 23 RCTs found reduced depressive symptoms in peri- and post-menopausal women.
- →COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease)CertaintyHighSourceRCT3 cited studies
Pooled analyses of randomized trials in people with stable COPD reported improvements in quality of life and dyspnea. A separate pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found improvements in dyspnoea, lower limb fatigue, heart rate, and TUG performance, with high adherence (75-100%) and minimal mild adverse events.
- →PCOS (Polycystic Ovary Syndrome)CertaintyHighSourceRCT3 cited studies
A pooled analysis of randomized trials found significant reductions in fasting insulin, HOMA-IR and LDL cholesterol in women with PCOS; the authors recommend structured HIIT for these outcomes. Another pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded reported reductions in BMI and 17α-OHP with aerobic exercise, and improved metabolic outcomes with combined or mind-body exercise, though certainty was low to very low.
Medium probability(17)
- →Diabetes Type 2CertaintyMediumSourceMeta-analysisModerate effect11 cited studies
Pooled analyses of randomized trials in adults with diabesity reported improvements in glycemic, anthropometric, and lipid outcomes compared with standard treatment. Findings differ for HbA1c: another pooled analysis of randomized trials found no significant change in this primary glycemic endpoint, although HOMA-IR improved.
- →ObesityCertaintyMediumSourceMeta-analysis14 cited studies
A dose-response analysis of 116 RCTs in 6880 adults with overweight or obesity found reductions in body weight, waist circumference, and body fat; ≥150 min/week at moderate intensity or greater was associated with clinically important reductions in waist circumference and body fat. Findings in a separate subgroup of children with BMI > 25 kg/m² did not show significant improvements in any executive-function subcomponent.
- →Parkinson's DiseaseCertaintyMediumSourceMeta-analysisLarge effect8 cited studies
Pooled analyses reported improvements in motor function, walking tests, and balance measures in people with Parkinson's Disease. One pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded reported a moderate effect for motor function (SMD −0.75).
- →ADHDCertaintyMediumSourceMeta-analysis2 cited studies
Pooled analyses whose designs were not recorded reported improvements in inhibitory control, working memory, cognitive flexibility, and executive function in children and adolescents with ADHD.
- →Hypertension (High Blood Pressure)CertaintyMediumSourceRCT5 cited studies
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded reported reductions in SBP (SMD −0.93), DBP (SMD −0.48), and HR (SMD −1.78), plus improved 6MWT (SMD 0.71). Findings were not consistent in people with T1DM and hypertension: another review reported mostly non-significant acute post-exercise blood-pressure reductions, with the only chronic reduction coming from a single study in adolescents.
- →OverweightCertaintyMediumSourceRCT5 cited studies
Pooled analyses of randomized trials reported improved FMD and reduced PWV and CIMT in adults with overweight or obesity. A separate pooled analysis of 43 RCTs involving 2315 women found reductions in body fat percentage, BMI, fat mass, and waist circumference with several aerobic exercise approaches.
- →Alzheimer's DiseaseCertaintyMediumSourceRCT4 cited studies
Pooled analyses of randomized trials reported improvements in cognitive test scores and quality of life in people with Alzheimer's Disease; one pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded reported SMD=0.95 for MMSE. Functional improvement was described as modest, with moderate-intensity aerobic exercise ranking best for the Barthel Index outcome.
- →Cancer (General)CertaintyMediumSourceRCTModerate effect4 cited studies
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found improved health-related quality of life (SMD=0.71, 95% CrI 0.37-1.06, P-score=0.92). Another pooled analysis of 74 RCTs involving 4,654 patients reported improvements in insulin, leptin, HOMA index, triglycerides, CRP, and total cholesterol.
- →Addiction (General)CertaintyMediumSourceRCT2 cited studies
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded described different exercise types as having benefits in different domains among people with substance use disorders. An RCT involving 40 adolescents with smartphone addiction found that acute aerobic exercise improved performance on Stroop and 2-back tasks and changed EEG oscillatory activity.
- →Drug AddictionCertaintyMediumSourceRCT2 cited studies
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found reduced drug craving with aerobic exercise (SMD -0.73), HIIT (SMD -2.19), and aerobic+resistance exercise (SMD -1.96). A separate RCT in 58 methadone-treated men reported changes in GPX4, SLC7A11, and ferritin with aerobic exercise, alone or with an NBS supplement.
- →Chronic Kidney DiseaseCertaintyMediumSourceRCTLarge effect2 cited studies
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found increased s-Klotho levels with chronic exercise (SMD 1.87; 95%CI 1.06-2.68; p<0.00001). In haemodialysis populations, pooled analyses also reported improvements in 6MWT, VO2 peak, SBP, and depression, with low to moderate GRADE certainty.
- →FibromyalgiaCertaintyMediumSourceRCT2 cited studies
Pooled analyses of randomized trials reported that swimming improved overall health status, while Liuzijue reduced pain and improved sleep quality. Another pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found reduced pain (MD −0.49; CI [−0.90, −0.08]; p=0.02); MCID was achieved with 2-3 sessions/week, >100 min/week, vigorous intensity, and 6-20 weeks duration.
- →Major Depressive DisorderCertaintyMediumSourceRCT2 cited studies
A pooled analysis of randomized trials found improvements in overall core executive function and two subdomains in adults with Major Depressive Disorder. A separate analysis reported improved depression severity in a depressed subgroup, but the finding does not establish that the same benefit applies to everyone with depression.
- →Metabolic SyndromeCertaintyMediumSourceRCT2 cited studies
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded reported improvements in body weight, body fat percentage, BMI, waist circumference, blood pressure, glucose, and lipid measures in postmenopausal women. Another analysis reported clinically meaningful LDL-C and TG reductions at relatively low exercise volumes.
- →OsteoporosisCertaintyMediumSourceRCT2 cited studies
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found improved lumbar BMD in people with osteoporosis; the reported optimal dose was high intensity, 30-59 min/session, 4-5 times/week, 24 weeks. A separate pooled analysis in postmenopausal women found changes in bone metabolism markers, including increases in ALP, P1NP, and OC and decreases in PTH and CTX.
- →Sarcopenia (Muscle Loss)CertaintyMediumSourceRCT2 cited studies
An RCT involving 1,567 participants found lower odds of clinically defined sarcopenia with HIIT at Years 3 (OR=0.51) and 5 (OR=0.47), alongside less decline in grip strength and gait speed. Another RCT involving 46 participants reported improved muscle mass and strength in its conclusions, though the detailed results were truncated in the abstract.
- →Sleep ApneaCertaintyMediumSourceRCT2 cited studies
Pooled analyses reported reduced AHI in people with moderate-to-severe OSA: one analysis of randomized and non-randomized human studies found MD -12.50 events/h, 95% CI -18.41 to -6.60, while pooled RCT evidence found MD -5.24, 95% CI -7.42 to -3.07, p<0.00001. The authors described the benefit as incomplete and not curative.
Low probability(28)
- →Anxiety Disorder (General)CertaintyLowSourceMeta-analysisSmall effect8 cited studies
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found a small reduction in anxiety (SMD=-0.32, 95% CI -0.60 to -0.03), while a separate analysis found that exercise prevented antenatal anxiety but did not significantly treat it. Findings disagree: another pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found an estimate of SMD −0.11 (95% CI −0.31 to 0.09), with the confidence interval crossing zero.
- →Heart Disease (General)CertaintyLowSourceMeta-analysis3 cited studies
Pooled analyses whose designs were not recorded reported improved Peak VO₂ and 6MWT distance, alongside changes in some measures of heart function. Findings also include a surrogate echocardiographic marker rather than patient-important outcomes, and another measured endpoint was not significant.
- →Autoimmune Disease (General)CertaintyLowSourceMeta-analysis1 cited study
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found increased T-cell counts (CD3+, CD4+, CD8+) in people with disease after long-term aerobic exercise, with moderate to large effect sizes.
- →Dysmenorrhea (Menstrual Pain)CertaintyLowSourceMeta-analysis1 cited study
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found reduced pain intensity (SMD = -1.728) and pain duration (WMD = -12.53 h) in nonathlete women with menstrual pain.
- →FrailtyCertaintyLowSourceMeta-analysis1 cited study
Pooled analyses of randomized trials found improved frailty status with aerobic exercise versus usual care in frail or pre-frail adults ≥60 (Hedges' g=0.34).
- →Mild Cognitive ImpairmentCertaintyLowSourceRCTLarge effect5 cited studies
Pooled analyses of randomized trials reported gains in cognitive flexibility and delayed recall, while primary global measures (MoCA, MMSE) did not change significantly in one comparison. Another pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found improved global cognitive function (SMD=0.81, 95% CI 0.58–1.05, p<0.00001) and quality of life, but not sleep quality; another pooled analysis of randomized trials found non-significant cognitive outcomes versus wait-list/usual care.
- →DementiaCertaintyLowSourceRCTLarge effect2 cited studies
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found improved cognitive function (SMD=0.80, 95% CI 0.23-1.37, p=0.006), but not physical performance. Findings disagree across outcomes: a separate review found no significant improvement in MMSE scores (SMD 0.44, 95% CI −0.21 to 1.09) and identified resistance training and Tai Chi, rather than aerobic exercise specifically, as the effective modalities.
- →Ankylosing SpondylitisCertaintyLowSourceRCT1 cited study
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded, involving 1,757 patients, reported reduced disease activity and improvements in spinal mobility and chest expansion with exercise, including aerobic exercise.
- →Chronic InflammationCertaintyLowSourceRCT1 cited study
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found reductions in CRP, IL-6, and TNF-α with exercise, particularly IAE+NAE and NAE, in MHD patients.
- →ConcussionCertaintyLowSourceRCT1 cited study
A systematic review of nine RCTs reported that aerobic exercise may improve concussion-related symptoms; it did not provide pooled numerical results.
- →DyslipidemiaCertaintyLowSourceRCT1 cited study
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found that exercise improved triglycerides, while some modalities also improved total cholesterol or HDL-C in people with SCAD-associated dyslipidemia. No exercise modality significantly changed LDL-C.
- →InsomniaCertaintyLowSourceRCT1 cited study
Pooled sleep outcomes improved (MD -2.51), but the ISI subgroup did not show a significant change.
- →MigraineCertaintyLowSourceRCT1 cited study
A pooled analysis of randomized and non-randomized human studies reported reduced pain intensity in people with a clinical diagnosis of migraine, with a dose-response relationship.
- →Neck PainCertaintyLowSourceRCT1 cited study
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found that aerobic exercise alone was not superior to control for pain (MD 5.16 [−6.38, 16.70]), while aerobic exercise combined with another therapy reduced pain (MD 7.71 [1.07, 14.35]).
- →OsteopeniaCertaintyLowSourceRCT1 cited study
Studies in postmenopausal women with osteopenia (T-score -1.0 to -2.5) found improved bone formation markers and reduced bone resorption markers.
- →PrediabetesCertaintyLowSourceRCT1 cited study
A pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found reductions in FBG (MD −1.33), 2hPG (MD −1.00), and HbA1c (MD −1.05) in people with prediabetes.
- →Allergic Rhinitis (Hay Fever)CertaintyLowSourceClinical1 cited study
An 8-week RCT involving 18 people with allergic rhinitis reported improvements in RSS, PNIF, FeNO, FVC, and cardiorespiratory outcomes, with no adverse events reported.
- →AsthmaCertaintyLowSourceClinical1 cited study
A systematic review of 8 RCTs involving 435 children reported consistent improvements in asthma control, quality of life, and cardiorespiratory fitness. Exercise was described as a safe and feasible adjunct to standard pharmacological therapy.
- →PerimenopauseCertaintyLowSourceClinical1 cited study
A 12-week aerobic exercise intervention in perimenopausal women was followed by improvements in PSQI (p=0.001) and GAD-7 (p=0.002) in a quasi-experimental study of 100 women.
- →SchizophreniaCertaintyLowSourceReviewnot used for recommendations2 cited studies
A review described benefits in cognition, psychiatric symptoms, daily functioning, and quality of life in people with schizophrenia. However, a pooled analysis whose designs were not recorded found no significant effect on total hippocampal formation volume (g=0.33, 95% CI -0.12 to 0.77, p=0.15); preliminary RCT data suggested changes in specific subfields, without a stable clinical finding.
- →AtherosclerosisCertaintyLowSourceAnimal researchnot used for recommendations1 cited study
In ApoE-/- mice, 16 weeks of voluntary aerobic exercise reduced aortic lesion area, improved endothelium-dependent relaxation, increased eNOS, and reduced vascular inflammation compared with sedentary controls.
- →Chronic Fatigue SyndromeCertaintyLowSourceTheoreticalnot used for recommendations1 other source
Graded aerobic exercise may improve fatigue and function in mild to moderate chronic fatigue syndrome, though risk of post-exertional malaise requires careful monitoring.
- →Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD)CertaintyLowSourceTheoreticalnot used for recommendations1 other source
Aerobic exercise reduces liver fat in people with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, independent of weight loss.
- →Heart Failure (CHF)CertaintyLowSourceTheoreticalnot used for recommendations1 other source
In stable chronic heart failure, supervised aerobic training improves exercise capacity and quality of life and reduces hospitalizations.
- →Hypertriglyceridemia (High Triglycerides)CertaintyLowSourceTheoreticalnot used for recommendations1 other source
Aerobic exercise lowers fasting triglycerides, most clearly when sustained at sufficient weekly volume.
- →Insulin ResistanceCertaintyLowSourceTheoreticalnot used for recommendations1 other source
Regular aerobic training improves insulin sensitivity in insulin-resistant adults.
- →Peripheral Artery DiseaseCertaintyLowSourceTheoreticalnot used for recommendations1 other source
Supervised walking-based aerobic training improves pain-free and maximal walking distance in people with intermittent claudication.
- →Stroke RecoveryCertaintyLowSourceTheoreticalnot used for recommendations1 other source
Aerobic training adapted to the person's ability improves walking capacity and cardiovascular fitness after stroke.
Side effects
19 listedHighest probability
- →Muscle Ache (Myalgia)CertaintyMediumSourceClinical5 cited studies · 1 other source
Pooled analyses whose designs were not recorded reported pain involving muscle soreness, joint pain, or shin pain, as well as musculoskeletal injury.
- →Heart Rhythm DisturbanceCertaintyMediumSourceClinical1 cited study
Pooled analyses whose designs were not recorded described discomfort and arrhythmia during exercise training.
Low probability(17)
- →Muscle StrainCertaintyLowSourceClinical7 cited studies
Reported findings include knee and ankle injuries, knee or back pain, arthritis, and skeletal injury; they do not specifically establish muscle strain.
- →Joint Pain (Arthralgia)CertaintyLowSourceClinical6 cited studies · 1 other source
Pooled analyses whose designs were not recorded reported mild to moderate musculoskeletal symptoms, including knee and ankle injury, knee or back pain, arthritis, and joint discomfort.
- →Lipid Profile WorseningCertaintyLowSourceClinical1 cited study
A pooled analysis whose design was not recorded found non-HDL-C increased by 0.37–0.74 mmol/L at 500–1000 METs-min/week and by 0.47–0.63 mmol/L at 1000–1500 METs-min/week, among 4,144 people in its non-HDL-C analysis.
- →FeverCertaintyLowSourceClinical1 cited study
A pooled analysis whose design was not recorded reported flu-like symptoms.
- →PainCertaintyLowSourceClinical1 cited study
A randomized controlled trial involving 120 people reported a temporary worsening of knee pain.
- →Skin Rash / IrritationCertaintyLowSourceClinical1 cited study
A pooled analysis whose design was not recorded reported foot blisters.
- →Blood Sugar DecreaseCertaintyLowSourceReference knowledge1 other source
Aerobic exercise can cause low blood sugar, particularly in people using insulin or sulfonylureas; delayed low blood sugar can occur hours afterward.
- →Heat IllnessCertaintyLowSourceReference knowledge1 other source
Prolonged cardio in hot or humid conditions, or with inadequate fluids, can lead to heat exhaustion or heat stroke.
- →Overtraining SyndromeCertaintyLowSourceReference knowledge1 other source
Excessive training volume or intensity without adequate recovery can lead to persistent fatigue, declining performance, mood disturbance, and disrupted sleep.
- →TendinopathyCertaintyLowSourceReference knowledge1 other source
Repetitive loading, especially when training volume increases rapidly, can lead to overuse conditions such as Achilles or patellar tendinopathy.
- →Appetite Increase (Undesired)CertaintyLowSourceReference knowledge1 other source
Burning extra energy can increase hunger in some people, who may eat back some of the calories; this compensatory eating can slow weight loss.
- →Blood Pressure IncreaseCertaintyLowSourceReference knowledge1 other source
During hard effort, blood pressure can rise and then settle afterward; an exaggerated rise matters for people with uncontrolled high blood pressure.
- →HeadacheCertaintyLowSourceReference knowledge1 other source
Pharmacology references note that hard effort can trigger an exertional headache, attributed to raised blood pressure and widened blood vessels in the head; heat or dehydration may make it more likely.
- →Inflammation IncreaseCertaintyLowSourceReview1 cited study
A review described oxidative stress and a paradoxical increase in inflammation after extreme exercise.
- →Muscle Breakdown (Rhabdomyolysis)CertaintyLowSourceReview1 cited study
A review noted elevated inflammatory mediators, including IL-6, leukocytes, and creatine kinase after high-intensity exercise; these findings do not by themselves establish rhabdomyolysis.
- →Muscle CrampsCertaintyLowSourceTheoretical1 other source
Muscle cramps can occur during or after prolonged cardio and may be related to dehydration or electrolyte imbalances.
- →Fainting (Syncope)CertaintyLowSourceTheoretical1 other source
After intense cardio, a drop in blood pressure after exercise or dehydration can contribute to fainting.
Don't do it if
When to skip it or get medical advice first8 listedHighest probability
- →Recent Heart Attack (MI)CertaintyLowSourceReference knowledgeTheoretical
In the acute period after a heart attack, cardio raises the heart muscle’s oxygen demand and can trigger reinfarction, arrhythmias, or cardiac rupture.
- →Unstable Heart Disease (Unstable Angina / Decompensated Heart Failure)CertaintyLowSourceReference knowledgeTheoretical
With unstable angina, decompensated heart failure, uncontrolled arrhythmia, or severe symptomatic aortic stenosis, exertion can precipitate ischemia, arrhythmia, or collapse. Exercise is deferred until the condition is stabilized and there is medical clearance.
- →Aortic AneurysmCertaintyLowSourceReference knowledgeTheoretical
Cardio can raise blood pressure and stress the aortic wall, potentially increasing the risk of aneurysm expansion or rupture.
- →Long QT SyndromeCertaintyLowSourceReference knowledgeTheoretical
In people with congenital or acquired long QT syndrome, intense cardio can trigger torsades de pointes, potentially through the sympathetic surge and electrolyte shifts associated with exertion.
- →Recent StrokeCertaintyLowSourceReference knowledgeTheoretical
Early intense cardio after an acute ischemic stroke may increase cerebral perfusion pressure and the risk of hemorrhagic transformation.
- →Acute Febrile IllnessCertaintyLowSourceReference knowledgeTheoretical
Vigorous exercise during a fever or systemic viral illness may raise the risk of myocarditis and prolong the illness; training is postponed until the fever has resolved.
- →RhabdomyolysisCertaintyLowSourceReference knowledgeTheoretical
Strenuous exercise during active or recent rhabdomyolysis can worsen muscle breakdown and risk kidney injury. Returning to exercise calls for gradual, medically supervised progression.
Low probability(1)
- →CardiomyopathyCertaintyLowSourceAnimal research1 cited study
Animal evidence suggests high-intensity aerobic exercise during cardiotoxic doxorubicin chemotherapy may compromise myocardial integrity; this finding has not been established in people.
Who the trials left out
Some trials of this practice did not take people with these conditions, so the studies say less about them. This is not a warning and does not show harm. Ask a clinician first.18 listed- Heart Disease (General)left out by 4 trials
PubMed links (4)
- Diabetes (General)left out by 3 trials
PubMed links (3)
- Drug Addictionleft out by 2 trials
PubMed links (2)
- Cancer (General)left out by 2 trials
PubMed links (2)
- Depressionleft out by 2 trials
PubMed links (2)
- Pregnancyleft out by 2 trials
PubMed links (2)
Left out by one trial each (12)
- Alcohol Addictionleft out by 1 trial
PubMed links (1)
- Alzheimer's Diseaseleft out by 1 trial
PubMed links (1)
- Arthritis (General)left out by 1 trial
PubMed links (1)
- Breastfeedingleft out by 1 trial
PubMed links (1)
- Chronic Fatigue Syndromeleft out by 1 trial
PubMed links (1)
- COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease)left out by 1 trial
PubMed links (1)
- Hypertension (High Blood Pressure)left out by 1 trial
PubMed links (1)
- Kidney Disease (General)left out by 1 trial
PubMed links (1)
- Mild Cognitive Impairmentleft out by 1 trial
PubMed links (1)
- Nasal Polypsleft out by 1 trial
PubMed links (1)
- Schizophrenialeft out by 1 trial
PubMed links (1)
- Strokeleft out by 1 trial
PubMed links (1)
Safety across the styles
Which pages list each warning. A warning on one style page may not fit the other styles.
- Listed for cardio in general and every written style
- Recent Heart Attack (MI)
- Listed on some pages only
- Acute Febrile Illness (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Swimming, Cycling, Brisk Walking, Tabata Training, Indoor Rowing) · Acute Injury (Jump Rope Training, Tabata Training) · Angina (High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Brisk Walking, Tabata Training, Indoor Rowing) · Aortic Aneurysm (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Indoor Rowing) · Heart Arrhythmia (High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Brisk Walking, Jump Rope Training, Tabata Training, Indoor Rowing) · Heart Failure (CHF) (Brisk Walking, Tabata Training) · Heart Valve Disease (High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Indoor Rowing) · Hypertension (High Blood Pressure) (High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Swimming, Jump Rope Training, Tabata Training) · Long QT Syndrome (Cardio in general, Swimming) · Osteoporosis (Jump Rope Training, Indoor Rowing) · Pregnancy (Jump Rope Training, Tabata Training) · Recent Stroke (Cardio in general, Cycling) · Rhabdomyolysis (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)) · Post-Surgery Recovery (Brisk Walking, Jump Rope Training) · Unstable Heart Disease (Unstable Angina / Decompensated Heart Failure) (Cardio in general, Swimming, Cycling) · Acute Diarrhea (Swimming) · Chlorine Sensitivity (Swimming) · Contagious Skin Infection (Swimming) · Deep Vein Thrombosis (Brisk Walking) · Epilepsy (Swimming) · Bone Fracture (Brisk Walking) · Glaucoma (Indoor Rowing) · Heart Disease (General) (Jump Rope Training) · Herniated Disc (Indoor Rowing) · Orthostatic Hypotension (Cycling) · Otitis Media (Ear Infection) (Swimming) · Pheochromocytoma (High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)) · Retinal Detachment (Indoor Rowing) · Tracheostomy (Swimming)
These precautions were written by our reviewers. They are not trial results.
- Side effects listed on 2 or more pages
- Appetite Increase (Undesired) (Cardio in general, Cycling) · Blood Pressure Increase (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Cycling) · Blood Sugar Decrease (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Tabata Training) · Blood Sugar Increase (High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Cycling) · Digestive Discomfort (Cycling, Brisk Walking) · Dizziness (High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Cycling, Tabata Training, Indoor Rowing) · Mental Fatigue (High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Swimming) · Physical Fatigue (High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Cycling) · Heart Rhythm Disturbance (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Cycling, Tabata Training) · Heat Illness (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Cycling, Brisk Walking) · Inflammation Increase (Cardio in general, Swimming) · Injury Risk Increase (Swimming, Cycling, Brisk Walking, Tabata Training, Indoor Rowing) · Joint Pain (Arthralgia) (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Cycling, Brisk Walking, Jump Rope Training, Indoor Rowing) · Muscle Ache (Myalgia) (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Swimming, Cycling, Brisk Walking, Indoor Rowing) · Muscle Breakdown (Rhabdomyolysis) (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Cycling, Jump Rope Training, Tabata Training) · Muscle Cramps (Cardio in general, Tabata Training, Indoor Rowing) · Muscle Strain (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Swimming, Cycling, Brisk Walking, Jump Rope Training) · Nausea (High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Tabata Training) · Overtraining Syndrome (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Cycling, Indoor Rowing) · Pain (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Swimming, Cycling, Brisk Walking, Indoor Rowing) · Skin Rash / Irritation (Cardio in general, Swimming, Cycling) · Fainting (Syncope) (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Swimming, Cycling, Tabata Training) · Tendinopathy (Cardio in general, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Swimming, Cycling, Jump Rope Training) · Weight Gain (High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Cycling) · Lipid Profile Worsening (Cardio in general, Brisk Walking)
Studied as a help on one page, listed as a precaution on another
- Heart Disease (General)
- Cardio in general: studied as a help (2 trials)
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT): studied as a help (Medium · 6 trials)
- Cycling: studied as a help (1 trial)
- Jump Rope Training: listed as a precaution (written by our reviewers)
- Heart Failure (CHF)
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT): studied as a help (Medium · 8 trials)
- Brisk Walking: listed as a precaution (written by our reviewers)
- Tabata Training: listed as a precaution (written by our reviewers)
- Hypertension (High Blood Pressure)
- Cardio in general: studied as a help (Medium · 3 trials)
- Brisk Walking: studied as a help (Medium · 4 trials)
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT): listed as a precaution (written by our reviewers)
- Swimming: listed as a precaution (written by our reviewers)
- Jump Rope Training: listed as a precaution (written by our reviewers)
- Tabata Training: listed as a precaution (written by our reviewers)
- Osteoporosis
- Cardio in general: studied as a help (2 trials)
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT): studied as a help (1 trial)
- Swimming: studied as a help (2 trials)
- Jump Rope Training: listed as a precaution (written by our reviewers)
- Indoor Rowing: listed as a precaution (written by our reviewers)
- Pregnancy
- High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT): studied as a help (Low · 3 trials)
- Swimming: studied as a help (1 trial)
- Cycling: studied as a help (1 trial)
- Jump Rope Training: listed as a precaution (written by our reviewers)
- Tabata Training: listed as a precaution (written by our reviewers)
Both sides are shown as they are listed. Talk to a clinician about your own case.
When you stop
Rebound and withdrawal after discontinuing6 listedHighest probability
- →Mood ImprovementCertaintyLowSourceClinicalloss of benefit1 cited study
Follow-up results 18 and 20 weeks after the intervention ended showed varying levels of depressive symptoms in the intervention groups, suggesting that benefits may depend on continuing aerobic exercise.
- →Physical Endurance IncreaseCertaintyLowSourceClinicalloss of benefit1 cited study
In an 81-person trial, the between-group difference was no longer significant at 6 months (Δ = 0.14 [95% CI = -1.71 to 2.00]; P = .878).
- →Chronic Pain ReductionCertaintyLowSourceReference knowledgeloss of benefit1 other source
Pain relief from regular aerobic exercise may fade gradually over weeks to months after exercise stops, as training gains are lost.
- →Insulin Resistance IncreaseCertaintyLowSourceTheoreticalloss of benefit1 other source
Improvements in insulin sensitivity may fade within days to a couple of weeks after training stops.
- →Weight GainCertaintyLowSourceTheoreticalloss of benefit1 other source
Stopping regular cardio without reducing calorie intake is associated with regaining weight and fat mass.
- →Blood Pressure IncreaseCertaintyLowSourceTheoreticalloss of benefit1 other source
Exercise-related reductions in blood pressure tend to decline within weeks of stopping training.
Interactions
Combine with caution
Highest severity first
- →CaffeineTheoreticalCaution
High-dose Caffeine combined with intense cardio can increase the risk of palpitations, arrhythmias, and hypertension through additive sympathomimetic effects.
- →SupplementsBeta-AlanineTheoreticalCaution
Beta-Alanine can cause paresthesia that may be mistaken for cardiac symptoms during cardio; at high doses, it may also impair thermoregulation.
Okay to combine with
Highest probability of useful synergy
- →SupplementsCaffeineCertaintyMediumSourceReference knowledgeAdditive
Taken before aerobic exercise, moderate doses (about 3-6 mg/kg) are described as improving endurance performance and reducing perceived exertion.
- →PracticesStrength TrainingCertaintyMediumSourceReference knowledgeComplementary
Combining cardio with Strength Training is described as improving cardiovascular fitness and muscle strength more than either alone, with additional effects on body composition and insulin sensitivity.
- →SupplementsBeetroot ExtractCertaintyMediumSourceReference knowledgePotentiating
Its dietary nitrates may increase nitric oxide availability, supporting oxygen efficiency and endurance during cardio.
- →SupplementsOmega-3CertaintyMediumSourceReference knowledgeAdditive
The proposed link is through lower resting heart rate and improved vascular reactivity, which may support cardio efficiency and recovery.
- →PracticesMeditationCertaintyMediumSourceTheoreticalComplementary
Meditation is described as supporting parasympathetic recovery after cardio, potentially reducing perceived exertion and helping with exercise adherence.
- →PracticesDynamic StretchingCertaintyMediumSourceTheoreticalComplementary
A Dynamic Stretching warm-up may gradually raise tissue temperature and heart rate and prepare the joints, potentially reducing early-session strain and injury risk.
- →PracticesPower NapCertaintyMediumSourceTheoreticalComplementary
Short naps and adequate sleep are described as supporting recovery and adaptation after endurance sessions, which may help maintain training consistency.
Weakens or is weakened by
Highest probability
- →SupplementsVitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)CertaintyMediumSourceTheoreticalCompetitive
Vitamin C at 1 g/day or more may blunt training-induced mitochondrial and endurance adaptations, although findings across studies are inconsistent.
How it works
The mechanisms this practice works through25 listed · 2 establishedEstablished mechanisms
- Brain-derived neurotrophic factorBDNF signalingestablished
Aerobic exercise increases levels of BDNF, which is essential for enhancing cognitive abilities and brain development.
- VO2maxCardiorespiratory fitnessestablished
MICT significantly improved VO2max (SMD 0.75, p<0.0001), with several studies meeting or exceeding the 1 MET threshold associated with 12-15% mortality reduction.
Proposed mechanisms
- BDNFneuroplasticityproposed
Physical activity promotes neurogenesis, cell survival, synaptogenesis, synaptic plasticity, and angiogenesis associated with improvements in cognitive function; multi-modal exercise enhances BDNF levels.
- BDNFNeurotrophic signalingproposed
Exercise increases blood flow velocity, enhances nutrient transport, promotes BDNF production, and activates neuroendocrine pathways, thereby improving executive function.
- Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)Neurotrophic factor signalingproposed
Chronic exercise elevates BDNF and other growth factors, promoting synaptogenesis, neuronal survival, and structural and functional plasticity within prefrontal and hippocampal circuits.
- Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)Neurotrophic factorsproposed
Aerobic exercise significantly increases serum BDNF levels, promotes neurogenesis and neuroplasticity, and modifies brain vasculature, contributing to alleviation of depressive symptoms.
- Pain modulationEndogenous opioid systemproposed
Exercise, especially high-intensity AE, increases β-endorphin and met-enkephalin in the hypothalamus, periaqueductal grey, and rostral ventromedial medulla, promoting pain relief.
- VO2peakCardiorespiratory fitnessproposed
Mean difference in relative VO2peak of 1.8 ml/kg/min in as-treated analysis, comparable to supervised interventions despite lower intensity
- BDNF, GDNFNeurotrophic support and neuroplasticityproposed
Aerobic exercise upregulates neurotrophic factors (BDNF, GDNF) supporting dopaminergic neuronal survival and synaptic remodeling; serum BDNF increases after 12 weeks of aerobic training correlate with reduced UPDRS-III motor scores and improved gait and balance.
- Body fat reduction and sex hormone productionAdiposity and HPG axis regulationproposed
Proposed mechanism: reductions in excess body fat reduce hypothalamic suppression (via pro-inflammatory adipocytokines, impaired insulin and dysregulated leptin signalling), improving HPG axis activity and sex hormone production; fat loss may be superior to exercise alone for improving testosterone.
- Circulating extracellular vesicle peroxiredoxin 1 (PRDX1)Antioxidant defense / oxidative stress responseproposed
12-week endurance training increased PRDX1 abundance in circulating EVs of participants with obesity; in vitro electrical pulse stimulation of human myotubes increased EV PRDX1 content by ~21%, suggesting muscle contractile activity contributes to antioxidant EV cargo
- GLUT4 expression, mitochondrial biogenesis, glucose storage capacityInsulin-mediated glucose disposal (combined aerobic+resistance)proposed
Aerobic exercise enhances glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity through mitochondrial biogenesis and increased expression of the insulin-responsive glucose transporter type 4; resistance exercise expands glucose storage capacity and facilitates glucose clearance from circulation.
- GLUT4 translocationAMPK and Akt signaling pathwaysproposed
Aerobic exercise activates AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and protein kinase B (Akt), promoting transport of glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) to the muscle cell membrane, enhancing muscle sensitivity to insulin and increasing glucose uptake from the bloodstream.
- HF and LF heart rate variability indicescardiac autonomic modulationproposed
After high-intensity interval aerobic exercise, HF and LF indices recover to baseline more slowly than after moderate-intensity continuous exercise within the first 10 minutes, while healthy individuals restore baseline autonomic modulation after that interval regardless of intensity.
- Hippocampal formation subfields CA1, CA2/3, CA4 and dentate gyrus (bilateral)Exercise-induced neural plasticityproposed
Six months of aerobic endurance training led to significant bilateral volume increases in CA1, CA2/3, CA4 and DG subfields, mechanistically attributed to upregulation of neurotrophic factors, facilitated neuroplastic processes including neurogenesis, angiogenesis and gliogenesis, and increases in dendritic density and length; effects are considered restorative, counteracting age- and/or disorder-d
- Hippocampal-prefrontal and executive control networksFunctional brain connectivityproposed
Increased functional connectivity between the anterior hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, and between posterior cingulate cortex and executive control network, basal ganglia, and default mode network, linked to improvements in inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility.
- Intratumoral CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell infiltrationAntitumor T-cell immunityproposed
Aerobic exercise combined with anti-PD-L1 blockade significantly increased intratumoral CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell density and shifted the CD8+/CD4+ ratio toward a cytotoxic-dominant profile, associated with reduced tumor burden in a 4T1 murine breast cancer model.
- PD-1/PD-L1 axisImmune checkpoint modulationproposed
Exercise may augment the efficacy of PD-L1 blockade by enhancing T-cell infiltration into the tumor microenvironment; however, the functional state of infiltrating T cells (cytokine and cytolytic markers such as IFN-γ, TNF-α, granzyme B, perforin) was not assessed.
- Physiological health indicatorsAMPK signaling and anti-inflammatory mechanismsproposed
The authors propose that aerobic exercise improves physiological health indicators through AMPK signaling pathway activation, mitochondrial biogenesis, fatty acid oxidation, and anti-inflammatory effects (e.g., reducing IL-6 and TNF-α); these mechanisms were not directly measured in this network meta-analysis.
- Postprandial glucose dynamicsGlucose counter-regulationproposed
The authors propose that acute pre-lunch exercise raises counter-regulatory hormones such as glucagon and catecholamines, increasing hepatic glucose output and contributing to higher post-lunch glucose and glucose nadir; these hormones were not measured in the present study.
- SLC7A11 (xCT)Cystine/glutamate antiporter (system xc-)proposed
Aerobic exercise significantly reduced SLC7A11 levels (F=15.94, P=0.001), interpreted as an adaptive reduction in cysteine import need due to enhanced antioxidant activity and a 'smart cellular strategy' protecting healthy cells while sensitizing damaged cells to ferroptosis.
- Serum ferritinIron metabolism / inflammationproposed
Aerobic exercise significantly reduced serum ferritin (F=17.92, P=0.001), likely reflecting improved systemic inflammation (lower IL-6), better insulin sensitivity, and increased functional iron requirement for hemoglobin/myoglobin synthesis rather than true iron depletion.
- Skeletal muscle oxygen saturation (SmO2)Muscle oxygen extraction and utilizationproposed
Endurance training induces adaptations in both systemic oxygen delivery and peripheral muscle oxygen extraction/utilization, reducing the oxygen demand-supply mismatch during exercise; however, no significant change in SmO2min at maximal task tolerance was observed.
- TNF-α, microglial inflammation, mitochondrial function, antioxidant enzymesAttenuation of inflammation and oxidative stressproposed
8–12 weeks of moderate-to-vigorous aerobic training reduces circulating TNF-α and brain inflammatory mediators, enhances mitochondrial function and antioxidant enzyme activity, limiting reactive oxygen species accumulation and stabilizing dopaminergic neuronal function.
- VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor)Angiogenesisproposed
Aerobic exercise was hypothesized to stimulate VEGF secretion from skeletal muscle into circulation, promoting angiogenesis and capillary expansion; however, the pooled analysis found no significant overall effect on circulating VEGF, so this mechanism was not confirmed.
How to start
Typical protocol
178 protocolsEstimatedAcross every study of this practice, whatever the variation.
41 min · 3×/week
- Course
- 13 weeks
- Per week
- 135 min
- Heart-rate zone
- zone 3
- % of max heart rate
- 63.8–81.2% of max
- % of VO₂max
- 60–70% VO₂max
- Intensity
- Mixed
- Format
- Individual
- Supervision
- Instructor-led
Courses and single sessions · 146 repeated-course and 16 single-session protocols
88% of the corpus contributed
Community experience
Based on 412 public posts from Reddit, YouTube, Bluesky, Hacker News, and Phoenix Rising.
What people report it did
15 outcomes mentioned across 412 public reports. A report often mentions several, so these counts do not add up to the total.
Reported benefits12
- Weight Management Support159 mentions
- Physical Endurance Increase65 mentions
- Physical Energy Increase45 mentions
- Mood Improvement37 mentions
- Cardiovascular Health Support36 mentions
- Physical Strength Increase27 mentions
- Body Composition Improvement25 mentions
- Muscle Mass Increase15 mentions
- Physical Function13 mentions
- Sleep Quality Improvement7 mentions
- Fatigue Reduction6 mentionspointed the other way
- Resting Heart Rate Improvement5 mentions
Reported side effects3
- Injury Risk Increase6 mentionsnot studied
- Muscle Ache (Myalgia)6 mentions
- Dizzinessnot studied
What people report doing
Counted from public posts and videos, not from a survey. Each figure counts the posts that mentioned it — most reports say nothing about schedule.
How often13 mentions
Intensity21 mentions
Where17 mentions
When5 mentions
Session lengthas written
How long they've practisedas written
References
276 screened · 204 analysed · 206 listed below
Studies and sources cited on this page. Evidence quality varies — check the grade on each.
- Effects of exercise programs on cardiopulmonary function and signs and symptoms in patients with post-COVID-19 condition: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Front Med (Lausanne)2026Meta-analysisAn=602
- Effect of aerobic exercise on sleep quality in patients with mental disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis.J Psychiatr Res2026Meta-analysisAn=775
- Optimal aerobic exercise dose for improving metabolic health and functional outcomes in frail older adults: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis.Clin Nutr2026Meta-analysisAn=4011
- Effects of different types of exercise interventions on perinatal depression, anxiety, and quality of life: a systematic review and meta-analysis.BMC Pregnancy Childbirth2026Meta-analysisAn=4189
- A network meta-analysis of the effects of different aerobic exercise prescriptions on bone density in osteoporosis patients.Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)2026Meta-analysisAn=2183
- Aerobic exercise for depression symptoms in adolescents: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis.BMC Public Health2026Meta-analysisAn=723
- Optimal dose of aerobic exercise for improving postpartum depression, anxiety, and quality of life: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials and dose-response analysis.Front Public Health2026Meta-analysisAn=2865
- Effects of different exercise interventions on quality of life in breast cancer survivors after treatment: a systematic review and network meta-analysis.Front Oncol2026Systematic reviewAn=5294
- The effects of aerobic exercise on quality of life and motor function in patients with Parkinson's disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis.BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil2026Meta-analysisAn=918
- Comparative effects of different exercise types on inflammatory markers in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients with overweight and obesity: a systematic review and network meta-analysis.BMC Endocr Disord2026Meta-analysisAn=4266