Cycling

A pooled analysis of randomized trials found lower ICU-acquired weakness (odds ratio [OR] = 0.49, 95% CI [0.37–0.67], P < .001) among 1,308 people in its outcome analysis, including people with COPD, Covid 19, pneumonia or post-surgery status.

A pooled analysis whose study designs were not recorded found glycogen increased by 269.7 ± 29.2 mmol·kg^-1 dw after cycling exercise (95%CI [212.4, 327.0]; p < 0.001), among 207 healthy people in the outcome analysis.

A randomized trial of 78 people with a clinical condition found a 7.2% increase in vital capacity after the intervention.

A cohort study of 56 people found greater improvement in Medical Research Council sum score in the ergometer group than in the comparison group: 1.0 [0.7–2.1] versus 0.1 [0.0–0.2] (p < 0.001, effect size = 1.48).

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In a randomized trial of 23 people with Parkinson's disease, MDS-UPDRS Motor III scores improved by 16.2% in the PSADC group (−5.3 ± 3.7 points), while the NA group had a 14.9% decline (4.2 ± 6.7 points); the group-by-time interaction was significant (F = 18.746, df = 1, p < 0.001, eta_p^2 = 0.472).

A systematic review of pooled analyses whose study designs were not recorded described reductions in liver fat among adults with obesity and T2D; one study reported a 39% relative reduction in people with T2D and cardiac dysfunction. The outcome analysis included 66 people.

In a randomized trial of 12 healthy people, MEP amplitude increased significantly from baseline to Post-10 and Post-15 in both the HW groups (both z < −7.07, both P < 0.001).

A 2025 randomized trial of 57 participants with a clinical condition found higher changes with eccentric cycling than control in cTHb (+1.86 μM) and cO2Hb (+1.94 μM).

In a randomized trial of 98 people, stress ratings at bedtime cortisol sampling showed a significant time-by-group interaction (F(1.92) = 4.64, p = .013). A review of mountain biking studies described resilience, perseverance and problem-solving skills, but gave no pooled estimate.

A randomized trial of 55 people found a change in digit span (9 ± 21%, P = 0.031).

In a randomized trial of 12 people, triglyceride concentrations were lower in fasted than fed trials (0.89 ± 0.28 vs. 1.10 ± 0.45 mmol L−1).

In a randomized trial, cooperation after synchronous cycling was higher than before (65.90 ± 37.53 versus 40.45 ± 32.71; interaction F_(1, 38) = 4.15, p = 0.049). A review also described social connection, belonging and peer support among themes reported by participants in cycling studies.

A randomized trial in 55 healthy people found a 1 ± 2% change in thigh circumference (P = 0.008).

In a randomized trial of 98 people, perceived anxiety showed a pattern of change over time and between groups (F(1.26) = 9.56, p = .002, η_p^2 = 0.26). A separate trial found state anxiety did not change significantly with either exercise or the control condition.

A randomized trial involving 20 people with dementia found grip strength increased significantly only in the seated cycling group.

In a randomized trial of 114 people with osteoarthritis, compliance was higher in the VR cycling group than in the non-VR group (χ²=11.19; P=.01). Other findings point in different directions: participants in one qualitative study described the virtual landscape as motivating, while another randomized trial found higher external motivation in a per-protocol analysis (mean difference 0.38, p=0.037; d=0.38).

Expert knowledge describes regular aerobic exercise such as cycling as improving sleep quality and reducing insomnia symptoms. Some people have also reported this effect; these reports are not evidence of a treatment effect.

A proposed effect is improved insulin sensitivity in skeletal muscle after acute and chronic cycling sessions, particularly for people with insulin resistance and prediabetes.

A proposed effect is reduced motor fluctuations and dyskinesia severity in people with Parkinson's disease, particularly with high-cadence or tandem training.

A proposed association is that regular cycling relates to reduced all-cause mortality and increased lifespan.

A proposed effect of endurance cycling is increased mitochondrial biogenesis in skeletal muscle, with improved oxidative capacity and metabolic efficiency in trained individuals.

A proposed effect is that low-impact cycling can improve joint mobility and reduce pain in people with knee osteoarthritis.

A proposed effect of sustained aerobic training is a modest rise in HDL cholesterol alongside lower triglycerides, with larger effects at higher weekly volume.

A proposed effect of aerobic exercise is improved erectile function through enhanced blood flow and endothelial health.

The studies did not support an analgesic effect: a randomized trial found no 'time' × 'session' interaction for local muscular measures (p=0.588), with a 4.5 ± 16.6 % relative change after exercise and 0.7 ± 10.8 % in the control group.

The available findings do not support a memory improvement. In one randomized trial, the ExB4 group had moderately better recognition than the control group (d = 0.51), but the reported estimate was SMD 0.51 [-0.47, 1.49].

The available findings do not support an HRV improvement. A cohort study of 38 people reported that ApEn increases during cycling were more pronounced in females than males.

This is a theoretical possibility; human evidence is not reported for an inflammation-reducing effect.

The available findings do not support improved vagal tone: a cohort study of 38 people found HF% values for all three classes dropped between Cycling-1 and Cycling-3.

The available findings do not support an increase in reaction speed. A review of randomized and non-randomized human studies reported that response time was never significantly longer with exercise, but was sometimes reduced; error rates were never lower during exercise and were sometimes higher than at rest.

In an RCT involving 44 people with COPD, 9-week eccentric cycling improved 6MWD (+64.2 m ECT, +69.3 m ECT-HV), EEI, and TUG (−1.71 to −1.9 s) versus control, but did not improve VO2peak. A randomized crossover trial in 17 people with COPD found lower V˙O2 and V˙E during eccentric than concentric cycling at identical submaximal workloads.

In a 12-week, 3-arm RCT involving 114 people, HAMD-17 scores fell in all stationary cycling groups, with greater reductions in the VR-enhanced group than in the non-VR group. Another RCT involving 20 people reported a decrease in depressive symptoms after ECC, with 65% of participants reporting symptoms at baseline and 20% afterward.

In an acute crossover trial, fasted cycling increased fat oxidation without increasing 24-h energy intake in 12 males with overweight. The studies disagree: pooled analyses whose designs were not recorded found no change in BMI across 2 trials (SMD −0.06, 95% CI −0.51 to 0.40, p=0.802), and cohort data did not link obesity with E-bike distance.

A single small, non-randomized within-subject study found improved inhibitory-control performance after acute moderate-intensity cycling in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder; working memory did not change.

In an RCT involving 20 women with dementia, seated cycling was associated with within-group improvements in 5xSTS and lower limb strength.

In a pilot study involving 20 clinically stable male CVD patients, a cycling device elicited moderate-to-vigorous intensity within CR training ranges, with no significant adverse cardiac events.

In a quasi-experimental study of 81 people with kidney failure, 12 weeks of intradialytic cycling increased bone resorptive markers while bone formation markers were unchanged; the results suggested bone remodeling had begun. Mortality and hospitalization at 1-year were similar to standard care.

In an RCT involving 20 ICU-hospitalized COVID-19 survivors, 8 weeks of ECC improved functional performance, cognition, and quality of life. ECC was superior to standard rehabilitation for 6MWT, TUG, and Barthel Index.

In a study of 60 participants, 57 pregnant elite and recreational athletes completed cycling HIIT; there were no cases of prolonged fetal bradycardia and 2 transient cases of prolonged fetal tachycardia. Umbilical and uterine artery PI remained within normal ranges, and all abnormal FHR events normalized within 8 min.

A review described improvements in locomotor endurance, gross motor function, bone density, and cardiorespiratory endurance in children with Cerebral Palsy participating in frame running or stationary bicycle studies.

A crossover study of arm cycling reported reduced fatigue and motor fatigability, alongside an increased finger movement rate, in people with Multiple Sclerosis.

Supervised stationary-cycle aerobic training is described as a standard part of cardiac rehabilitation for stable coronary disease.

Regular aerobic exercise is described as modestly improving triglycerides and HDL cholesterol as an adjunct to diet.

Low-to-moderate intensity aerobic exercise, including cycling, is described as potentially reducing pain and improving function in fibromyalgia, with exercise introduced gradually.

Cycling is described as recommended for stable heart failure (NYHA Class II–III) to improve functional capacity and reduce hospitalization.

Regular moderate-intensity cycling is described as a lifestyle therapy that reduces blood pressure in people with hypertension.

Regular moderate aerobic exercise is described as potentially improving sleep quality in people with insomnia, ideally when not done close to bedtime.

Regular aerobic exercise is described as improving waist circumference, blood pressure, triglycerides, and glucose in people with metabolic syndrome.

Supervised cycling is described as improving walking distance and quality of life in people with intermittent claudication due to PAD.

Regular moderate aerobic activity, including cycling, is described as improving insulin sensitivity and lowering progression to type 2 diabetes in people with prediabetes.

A meta-analysis of randomized trials found no significant pooled effects of structured aerobic exercise on the primary global cognitive measures, MMSE and MoCA. Only the ADAS-Cog subscale improved significantly, and that subgroup was heterogeneous.

An RCT involving 29 people with ADHD found no statistically significant differences in its primary memory outcomes. A post-hoc sentence-production difference reached p<0.05 but was interpreted as an unconfirmed signal.

A review of randomized and non-randomized human studies found that several Alzheimer's Disease studies did not support cognitive, executive function, or memory benefits over controls.

A randomized trial of 55 people recorded delayed onset muscle soreness. In another randomized trial of 18 people, discomfort during a sprint cycling session led to a dropout.

A randomized trial of 12 people found that glucose concentrations after the FASTED-PM trial were higher than after all other trials (P < 0.05).

A review of randomized and non-randomized human studies recorded dropouts related to knee pain among other medical complications, illness, or injury. A randomized trial of 57 people also reported knee pain during eccentric cycling.

In a randomized trial of 12 people, hunger ratings were higher in evening than morning trials (46 ± 29 vs. 39 ± 28 mm) and in fasted than fed trials (48 ± 30 vs. 38 ± 27 mm).

Pooled analyses whose designs were not recorded found a small increase in BMI in clinical populations (SMD = 0.40 kg/m², 95% CI: 0.03 to 0.77, P = 0.042).

A pooled analysis of randomized trials recorded withdrawals due to musculoskeletal and overuse injuries during cross-training interventions. In a randomized trial of 96 people, a participant tore a ligament in a bicycle fall during a cycling-course assessment.

In a randomized trial of 18 healthy people, accuracy for incongruent stimuli in the SIE group decreased from 96.4% (92.9–100.0) before exercise to 92.9% (89.3–97.3) after exercise (p=0.016).

A randomized trial of 40 healthy people found that perceived low back pain increased after a 3-h cycling session.

In a randomized trial of 12 people, fullness ratings were higher in fed than fasted trials (48 ± 28 vs. 37 ± 29 mm).

A randomized trial of 18 healthy people recorded thirst; the finding does not report increased urination.

A pilot study of 20 people recorded transient ectopic beats that caused no symptoms. A review also discussed cardiac arrhythmias, but did not establish how often they occur during cycling.

Outdoor cycling carries a risk of falls and collisions that can cause abrasions, fractures, or head injury; helmets reduce head injury risk.

Chronic excessive cycling without recovery can lead to fatigue, declining performance, hormonal disruption, and mood disturbances.

Sustained pressure on handlebars or the saddle can cause tingling or numbness in the hands or perineum, particularly on long rides or with poor bike fit.

Prolonged cycling in heat or while dehydrated can lead to vasovagal fainting when blood flow to the brain is reduced.

Repetitive pedaling with poor bike fit or abrupt increases in riding volume can contribute to patellar, quadriceps, or Achilles tendinopathy and iliotibial band pain.

During long or intense rides, reduced blood flow to the gut, a bent-forward riding position, and sports drinks or gels can contribute to nausea, cramps, or bloating.

Stopping suddenly after a hard ride, or riding in heat or while dehydrated, can allow blood to pool in the legs and lower blood pressure, causing light-headedness.

Long or intense rides in hot, humid conditions without adequate fluids can lead to dehydration and exertional heat illness.

Very long or very hard rides, particularly in heat or when dehydrated, can reduce blood flow to the kidneys and cause a short-term decline in kidney function; this has been observed during ultra-endurance events.

Unaccustomed, very hard cycling, such as a first indoor spin class, can damage muscle fibres and release myoglobin into the blood; this exertional rhabdomyolysis can harm the kidneys.

Prolonged saddle contact can cause chafing, folliculitis, or saddle sores when friction, moisture, and pressure affect the skin.